Methods for detection of respiratory diseases

ABSTRACT

Disclosed are methods of identifying, predicting and treating subjects at risk for exacerbation or the presence of a respiratory disease, by detecting expression levels of one or more proteins associated with the respiratory disease.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/931,449, filed Jan. 24, 2014. The disclosure of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/931,449, is incorporated herein by reference.

GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was made with Government support under grant number RO1 HL 09-5432-01, awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The Government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention generally relates to methods of identifying, predicting and treating subjects at risk for exacerbation of a respiratory disease as well as identifying, predicting and treating subjects at risk of developing a respiratory disease by detecting expression levels of one or more proteins associated with the respiratory disease.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a major cause of outpatient medical care, hospital admission days and mortality (Vestbo, J., et al. Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, GOLD Executive Summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med (2012)). Acute episodes of worsening COPD are characterized by cough, sputum production, shortness of breath and wheezing (often referred to as acute exacerbations of COPD or AECOPD) and are treated with antibiotics and/or prednisone. Although the major risk factor for COPD is a history of smoking, most current and former smokers do not have COPD. Furthermore, smokers without COPD have acute episodes of airway disease clinically identical to exacerbations of COPD (often referred to as acute bronchitis).

Recent work suggests that there are subsets of current and former smokers who are more susceptible to frequent episodes of chronic bronchitis or acute exacerbations of COPD (Hurst, J. R., et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 363, 1128-1138 (2010)). Clinical predictors for these episodes include: previous episodes of bronchitis or exacerbations of COPD, airflow obstruction on spirometry, low respiratory health scores, and gastroesophageal reflux (Hurst, J. R., et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 363, 1128-1138 (2010)). These susceptible patients are also postulated to be more prone to systemic inflammation. Evidence for systemic inflammation from previous large studies includes: elevated white blood cell count and fibrinogen (Thomsen, M., et al. Inflammatory biomarkers and exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Jama 309, 2353-2361 (2013)), and C reactive Protein (CRP). These studies did not include at risk current and former smokers and were limited to the study of a small number of biomarkers. Other studies have suggested biomarkers such as surfactant protein D (Ozyurek, B A., et al. Multidisciplinary respiratory medicine, 2013; 8:36), fetuin A (Minas, M., et al., COPD 2013, 10:28-34, adiponectin and CRP (Kirdar, S., et al. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation, 2009; 69: 219-224) might be predictive of AECOPDs. These studies have been limited by small sample size and limited clinical phenotyping with incomplete adjustment for covariates predictive of exacerbations.

The presence of emphysema has been associated with increased mortality and increased risk of lung cancer in COPD. Similarly, the distribution of emphysema is important for determining patients eligible for lung volume reduction procedures. High resolution computed tomography (HRCT) chest scans are useful in characterizing the distribution of emphysema and providing quantitative measurements, however they are expensive, may require a separate patient visit and raise concerns about radiation exposure.

At present, there exists a need for development of reliable and sensitive molecular markers which can be used to predict subjects who are susceptible to exacerbation of COPD as well as the presence or absence of emphysema.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows risk of a moderate or severe exacerbation of COPD based on number of abnormal biomarkers.

FIG. 2 shows risk of hospitalization for exacerbation of COPD based on number of abnormal biomarkers.

FIGS. 3A-3E show the biomarkers associated with CT-assessed emphysema in the COPDGene cohort from the COPDGene multi-center study. FIG. 3A shows advanced glycosylation end-product receptor (RAGE). FIG. 3B shows Intracellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1). FIG. 3C shows Cadherin 1 (CDH1), FIG. 3D shows Cadherin 13 (CDH13) and FIG. 3E shows thyroxin-binding globulin (SERPINA7). The results presented are normal quantile transformed biomarker levels on the ordinate and percent emphysema (% low attenuation ≤−950 HU) on CT scan on abscissa (p<0.001 for all comparisons).

FIGS. 4A-4D show receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves with emphysema (% LAA<−950 HU ≥5%) vs. no emphysema (% LAA<−950 HU <5%) as outcome for (FIG. 4A) covariates age, gender, body mass index, smoking status and FEV₁ (all ranges); (FIG. 4B) same covariates with FEV₁ and 15 biomarkers; (FIG. 4C) covariates with FEV₁ (≥50% predicted) and (FIG. 4D) covariates with FEV₁ (≥50% predicted) and 15 biomarkers. The results presented are ROC curves for covariates age, gender, body mass index, current smoking status with FEV₁ (all ranges and excluding severe and very severe airflow limitation) with and without 15 biomarkers from the multiple regression model (RAGE, ICAM1, CCL20, SERPINA7, CDH13, CDH1, TGFB1 LAP, CCL13, TNFRSF11B, CCL8, IgA, SORT1, IL2RA, CCL2, IL12B) as labeled FIGS. 4A-4D. Nominal logistic regression was performed to derive the ROC curves with emphysema compared to no emphysema as the outcome. Emphysema was considered present if % LAA <-950 HU was ≥5% and emphysema was absent if % LAA <−950 HU <5%. AUC=Area under curve. For FIG. 4A the AUC was 0.88; for FIG. 4B the AUC was 0.92; for FIG. 4C the AUC was 0.78 and for FIG. 4D the AUC was 0.85.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

One embodiment of the invention relates to a method of identifying a subject at risk for exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprising obtaining a biological sample from the subject; determining the expression level of at least one protein associated with the respiratory disease in the biological sample from the subject selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A and combinations thereof; and identifying the subject as at risk of exacerbation when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered as compared to the expression level of the least one protein from a control.

Another embodiment of the invention relates to a method to predict a subject's risk for exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprising obtaining a biological sample from the subject; analyzing the biological sample for at least one protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A and combinations thereof; wherein an altered expression level of the at least one protein compared to a control predicts the subject to be at risk for exacerbation for the respiratory disease.

Another embodiment of the invention relates to a method to treat a subject at risk for exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprising obtaining a biological sample from the subject; determining the expression level of at least one protein associated with the respiratory disease in the biological sample from the subject; wherein the at least one protein is selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A and combinations thereof; identifying the subject as at risk of exacerbation when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered as compared to a control; and treating the subject for the respiratory disease.

In any of the embodiments of the invention described herein, determining the expression level of the at least one protein associated with the respiratory disease comprises comparing the expression level of the at least one protein associated with the respiratory disease from the subject with the expression level of the at least one protein from a control. In one aspect, the expression level of the least one protein is considered altered if the expression level of the least one protein as compared to the expression level from the control is increased or decreased. In one aspect, analyzing the biological sample comprises determining the expression level of the at least one protein and comparing the expression level of the at least one protein from the subject with the expression level of the at least one protein from the control. In one aspect, the expression level of the least one protein is considered altered if the expression level of the least one protein as compared to the expression level from the control is increased or decreased.

In any of the embodiments of the invention described herein, the protein is selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A and combinations thereof. In one aspect the at least one protein is a protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F and combinations thereof. In still another aspect, the at least one protein can be a protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A and combinations thereof.

In one aspect, treating the subject at risk for exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprises administering to the subject a compound selected from a bronchodilator, a corticosteroid, an antibiotic, a phosphodiesaterease inhibitor and combinations thereof. In still another aspect, treating the subject at risk for exacerbation comprises hospitalization, pulmonary rehabilitation, oxygen therapy, surgery and/or lifestyle changes of the subject.

In any of the embodiments of the invention described herein, the respiratory disease can be chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Another embodiment relates to a kit for determining the expression level of at least one protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, and IL23A. In one aspect, the kit comprises a component selected from an antibody, an antisense RNA molecule, a molecular probe or tag and a microfluidics system, wherein in the component detects the expression level of the least one protein. In another aspect, the component detects the expression level of the at least one protein by a method selected from Western blot, immunoblot, enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA), radioimmunoassay (MA), immunoprecipitation, chemiluminescence, fluorescent polarization, phosphorescence, immunohistochemical analysis, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry, microcytometry, microarray, microscopy, fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS), flow cytometry, protein binding assay and combinations thereof.

Yet another embodiment of the invention relates to a method of identifying a subject at risk of developing emphysema comprising obtaining a biological sample from the subject; determining the expression level of at least one protein associated with the respiratory disease in the biological sample from the subject selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, CDH1, and combinations thereof; and identifying the subject as at risk of developing emphysema when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered as compared to the expression level of the least one protein from a control.

Another embodiment of the invention relates to a method to predict a subject's risk for developing emphysema comprising obtaining a biological sample from the subject; analyzing the biological sample for at least one protein selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, CDH1, and combinations thereof; wherein an altered expression level of the at least one protein compared to a control predicts the subject to be at risk for developing emphysema. In one aspect, analyzing the biological sample comprises determining the expression level of the at least one protein and comparing the expression level of the at least one protein from the subject with the expression level of the at least one protein from a control, wherein the expression level of the least one protein is considered altered if the expression level of the least one protein as compared to the expression level from the control is increased or decreased.

Another embodiment of the invention relates to a method to treat a subject at risk for developing emphysema comprising obtaining a biological sample from the subject; determining the expression level of at least one protein in the biological sample from the subject selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, CDH1; identifying the subject as at risk of developing emphysema when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered as compared to a control; and treating the subject for emphysema.

In any of the embodiments of the invention described herein, determining the expression level of the at least one protein comprises comparing the expression level of the at least one protein selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, CDH1, and combinations thereof, from the subject with the expression level of the at least one protein from a control. In one aspect, the expression level of the least one protein is considered altered if the expression level of the least one protein as compared to the expression level from the control is increased or decreased.

In one aspect, treating the subject at risk for developing emphysema comprises administering to the subject a compound selected from a bronchodilator, a corticosteroid, an antibiotic, a phosphodiesaterease inhibitor and combinations thereof. In still another aspect, treating the subject at risk for developing emphysema comprises hospitalization of the subject.

Another embodiment relates to a kit for determining the expression level of at least one protein selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, CDH1. In one aspect, the kit comprises a component selected from an antibody, an antisense RNA molecule, a molecular probe or tag and a microfluidics system, wherein in the component detects the expression level of the least one protein. In another aspect, the component detects the expression level of the at least one protein by a method selected from Western blot, immunoblot, enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA), radioimmunoassay (RIA), immunoprecipitation, chemiluminescence, fluorescent polarization, phosphorescence, immunohistochemical analysis, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry, microcytometry, microarray, microscopy, fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS), flow cytometry, protein binding assay and combinations thereof.

In any of the embodiments of the invention described herein, RAGE is soluble RAGE (sRAGE).

In any of the embodiments of the invention described herein, altered expression level of the at least one protein is at least about 5% different from the expression level of the control.

In any of the embodiments of the invention described herein, the biological sample is selected from blood, plasma, or peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

This invention generally relates to systems, processes, methods, articles of manufacture, kits, and compositions that relate to respiratory disease treatments and diagnostics where the respiratory disease can include, but is not limited to chronic pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchitis, asthma and/or emphysema. The invention includes methods for identifying, predicting and/or treating a subject at risk of exacerbation of a respiratory disease such as COPD, as well as the presence or absence of emphysema. The inventors describe herein methods and uses of determining novel biomarkers and panels of biomarkers and demonstrate their use in determining if a subject is at risk of exacerbation of a respiratory disease as well as to determine the presence of a respiratory disease. The biomarkers of the present invention represent a novel, noninvasive tool to predict and/or identify subjects at risk of exacerbation of COPD as well as to predict and/or identify the presence or absence of emphysema in a subject. The presence and expression levels of systemic biomarkers, can be easily measured and can provide information regarding COPD and emphysema phenotypes, as well as providing significant value in diagnosing, managing and treating individuals with COPD exacerbation and/or emphysema. In addition a biomarker signature of COPD and/or emphysema phenotypes can provide insight to the pathogenesis of the diseases.

There is evidence for systemic manifestations in current and former smokers that result in comorbidities such as weight loss, depression, osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease that greatly contribute to poor health outcomes (Agusti, A., et al. Systemic inflammation and comorbidities in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc 9, 43-46 (2012); Decramer, M., et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lancet 379, 1341-1351 (2012)). The pathophysiology of these systemic manifestations is unclear; however, recent work on peripheral blood biomarkers suggested that there may be biomarker signatures in blood that are associated with COPD phenotypes (Rosenberg, S. R., et al. Biomarkers in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Transl Res 159, 228-237 (2012)). Examples of candidate biomarkers previously reported in the literature include: C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), leptin and adiponectin (Thomsen, M., et al. Inflammatory Biomarkers and Comorbidities in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med (2012); Gaki, E., et al. Associations between BODE index and systemic inflammatory biomarkers in COPD. Copd 8, 408-413 (2011)).

Limitations of previous studies include small sample size and individual biomarkers. For example, in a study of 40 COPD patients, serum SP-D associated with increased exacerbations in a 6 month follow up period (Ozyurek, B. A., et al. Value of serum and induced sputum surfactant protein-D in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Multidisciplinary respiratory medicine 8, 36 (2013)). In a study of 145 COPD patients enrolled at baseline, 27 markers were measured in multiplex and baseline subjects were prospecitively followed for exacerbations for one year (Bafadhel, M., et al. Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: identification of biologic clusters and their biomarkers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 184, 662-671 (2011)). In this cohort, there were 189 moderate/severe subjects with N=21 hospitalized. There were no biomarkers predictive of future exacerbations per se; however sputum IL1β, serum CXC10 and peripheral eosinophilia were able to distinguish bacterial, viral, and eospinophilic subtypes of AECOPD. In 359 subjects from the ECLIPSE study (Evaluation of COPD Longitudinally to Identify Predictive Surrogate Endpoints-a non-interventional, observational, multicentre, three-year study in people with COPD), sputum neutrophilia was found not to be predictive of exacerbations (Singh, D., et al. Sputum neutrophils as a biomarker in COPD: findings from the ECLIPSE study. Respir Res 11, 77 (2010)). In 100 COPD patients, lower serum fetuin-A was associated with shorter onset to first exacerbation (Minas, M., et al. Fetuin-A is associated with disease severity and exacerbation frequency in patients with COPD. COPD 10, 28-34 (2013)). During hospitalization for AECOPD, high persistent levels of angiopoietin 2 converting enzyme were associated with poor prognosis (Nikolakopoulou, S., et al. Serum Angiopoietin-2 and CRP Levels During COPD Exacerbations. COPD (2013)). Serum CRP, serum amyloid A protein, and IL-6 have also been associated with poor prognosis of hospitalized patients (Gao, P., et al. Sputum inflammatory cell-based classification of patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS One 8, e57678 (2013)). In 60 patients hospitalized for AECOPD, high hsCRP on admission was associated with poor outcome (Tofan, F., et al. High sensitive C-reactive protein for prediction of adverse outcome in acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Pneumologia 61, 160-162 (2012)). Serum uric acid has also been associated with poor prognosis in 314 AECOPD patients admitted to the hospital (Bartziokas, K., et al. Serum uric acid on COPD exacerbation as predictor of mortality and future exacerbations. Eur Respir J (2013)). In 40 subjects with an acute exacerbation of COPD, SP-D was found to be elevated (Ju, C. R., et al. Serum surfactant protein D: biomarker of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Dis Markers 32, 281-287 (2012)). In 99 subjects admitted for AECOPD, high levels of n-terminal pro brian natriuretic peptide were associated with higher mortality rates (Hoiseth, A. D., et al. NT-proBNP independently predicts long term mortality after acute exacerbation of COPD—a prospective cohort study. Respir Res 13, 97 (2012)). In 20 admissions for AECOPD, serum and TNFα and IL-6 were elevated (Karadag, F., et al. Biomarkers of systemic inflammation in stable and exacerbation phases of COPD. Lung 186, 403-409 (2008)). In 73 subjects persistent elevated CRP was associated with higher admission rates to the hospital 50 days after discharge (Perera, W. R., et al. Inflammatory changes, recovery and recurrence at COPD exacerbation. Eur Respir J 29, 527-534 (2007)). In 41 subjects serum IL-6 and CRP levels were elevated during a COPD exacerbation (Hurst, J. R., et al. Systemic and upper and lower airway inflammation at exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 173, 71-78 (2006)). In 9 subjects, serum tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 concentrations were elevated during an AECOPD (Higashimoto, Y., et al. Increased serum concentrations of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 in COPD patients. Eur Respir J25, 885-890 (2005)). In 14 subjects admitted for an exacerbation, ICAM and IL-8 were elevated in serum (Gerritsen, W. B., et al. Markers of inflammation and oxidative stress in exacerbated chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. Respir Med 99, 84-90 (2005)). In 24 patients, vitamin A and E were lower during an exacerbation compared to baseline levels (Tug, T., et al. Antioxidant vitamins (A, C and E) and malondialdehyde levels in acute exacerbation and stable periods of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clinical and investigative medicine. Medecine clinique et experimentale 27, 123-128 (2004)). In 54 subjects IL-5 receptor α was elevated in serum during an exacerbation (Rohde, G., et al. Soluble interleukin-5 receptor alpha is increased in acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 135, 54-61 (2004)). In 100 subjects admitted for AECOPD, serum magnesium has been associated with readmission at one year (Bhatt, S. P., et al. Serum magnesium is an independent predictor of frequent readmissions due to acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respir Med 102, 999-1003 (2008)). Sputum neutrophila and inflammatory markers in patients hospitalized for AECOPD have worse outcomes (Gao, P., et al. Sputum inflammatory cell-based classification of patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS One 8, e57678 (2013)). In a study of 145 COPD patients, sputum IL1β and eosinophilia at baseline were associated with future exacerbations (Bafadhel, M., et al. Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: identification of biologic clusters and their biomarkers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 184, 662-671 (2011)).

The inventors of the present invention have found novel, reliable and sensitive molecular markers which can be used to identify, predict and treat subjects who are susceptible to exacerbation of various respiratory diseases such as COPD. The inventors have also found novel, reliable and sensitive molecular markers which can be used to identify, predict and treat subjects predicted to have emphysema. For COPD, the biomarkers include CCL24 (chemokine ligand 24), IL2RA (Interleukin-2 receptor alpha chain), APOA4 (Apolipoprotein A-IV), GC (human group specific component (Gc)), IgA (immunoglobulin A), LPA (lipoprotein(a)), KLK3_F (a kallikrein protein), FAS (Fas cell surface death receptor), NRCAM (neuronal cell adhesion molecule), TNFRSF10C (tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, member 10c), IL12B (interleukin-12 subunit B), and IL23A (interleukin 23 subunit A) and combinations of these biomarkers.

One embodiment of the present invention relates to a method of indentifying a subject or predicting a subject at risk of exacerbation of a respiratory disease by determining the expression level of at least one protein associated with the respiratory disease. In one aspect the at least one protein is selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F or combinations thereof. In still another aspect, the at least one protein is selected from CCL24, IL2RA, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A or combinations thereof. In still another aspect, the at least one protein associated with the respiratory disease is at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six proteins, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, at least ten, at least eleven, or twelve of any combination of the proteins selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, and IL23A. The subject can be identified and/or predicted to be at risk of exacerbation of the respiratory disease when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered as compared to the expression level of the same protein from a control.

Another aspect of the present invention relates to a method to treat a subject at risk for exacerbation of a respiratory disease by determining the expression level of at least one protein associated with the respiratory disease in a biological sample from the subject, wherein the protein can be CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A and combinations thereof. The subject can be identified as at risk of exacerbation of the respiratory disease when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered as compared to the expression level of the at least one protein from a control. Once the subject is identified as being at risk for exacerbation of the respiratory disease, the subject can be treated for the respiratory disease. In a preferred aspect, the respiratory disease is COPD.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a method of indentifying or predicting a subject at risk of developing emphysema by determining the expression level of at least one protein in a biological sample from the subject. In one aspect, the at least one protein is selected from RAGE (advanced glycosylation end-product receptor also referred to as AGER), CCL20 (macrophage inhibitory protein 3a), ICAM1 (intercellular adhesion molecule 1), SERPINA7 (serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade A (alpha-1 antiproteinase, antitrypsin member 7; thyroxin-binding globulin)), CDH13 (cadherin 13), CDH1 (cadherin 1) or combinations thereof. In still another aspect, the at least one protein is at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five or at least six proteins selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, and CDH1. The subject can be identified or predicted to be at risk of emphysema when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered as compared to the expression level of the same protein from a control. In a preferred aspect, the respiratory disease is COPD.

Another aspect of the present invention relates to a method to treat a subject at risk for emphysema by determining the expression level of at least one protein associated with the respiratory disease in a biological sample from the subject, wherein the protein is RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, and CDH1 and combinations thereof. The subject can be identified as at risk of exacerbation of emphysema when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered as compared to the expression level of the same protein from a control. Once the subject is identified as being at risk for exacerbation of emphysema, the subject is treated for emphysema.

The subject can be identified and/or predicted as at risk of exacerbation of the respiratory disease, such as COPD and/or the presence of emphysema when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered. The expression level of the at least one protein can be determined to be altered by comparing the expression level of the at least one protein from the subject with the expression level of the at least one protein from a control. The expression level of the least one protein is considered altered if the expression level of the least one protein as compared to the expression level of the at least one protein from the control is increased or decreased. In one aspect, the expression levels of at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, at least ten, at least eleven or twelve of the proteins can increase, decrease or there can be a combination of expression levels, wherein one or more of the protein expression levels can be increased (or the genes are upregulated) as compared to the control expression level, while one or more different protein expression levels can be decreased (or the genes are downregulated) as compared to the control expression level. In one aspect, the altered expression level of the at least one protein is at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or 100% different (i.e. increased, decreased) from the expression level of the control.

As used herein, the term “expression”, when used in connection with detecting the expression of a gene, can refer to detecting transcription of the gene (i.e., detecting mRNA levels) and/or to detecting translation of the gene (detecting the protein produced). To detect expression of a gene refers to the act of actively determining whether a gene is expressed or not. This can include determining whether the gene expression is upregulated as compared to a control, downregulated as compared to a control, or unchanged as compared to a control. Therefore, the step of detecting expression does not require that expression of the gene actually is upregulated or downregulated, but rather, can also include detecting that the expression of the gene has not changed (i.e., detecting no expression of the gene or no change in expression of the gene).

Expression of transcripts and/or proteins is measured by any of a variety of known methods in the art. For RNA expression, methods include but are not limited to: extraction of cellular mRNA and Northern blotting using labeled probes that hybridize to transcripts encoding all or part of the gene; amplification of mRNA using gene-specific primers, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), followed by 30 quantitative detection of the product by any of a variety of means; extraction of total RNA from the cells, which is then labeled and used to probe cDNAs or oligonucleotides encoding the gene on any of a variety of surfaces; in situ hybridization; and detection of a reporter gene.

Methods to measure protein expression levels generally include, but are not limited to: Western blot, immunoblot, enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA), radioimmunoassay (RIA), immunoprecipitation, surface plasmon resonance, chemiluminescence, fluorescent polarization, phosphorescence, immunohistochemical analysis, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry, microcytometry, microarray, microscopy, fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS), and flow cytometry, as well as assays based on a property of the protein including but not limited to enzymatic activity or interaction with other protein partners. Binding assays are also well known in the art. For example, a BIAcore machine can be used to determine the binding constant of a complex between two proteins. The dissociation constant for the complex can be determined by monitoring changes in the refractive index with respect to time as buffer is passed over the chip (O'Shannessy et al., 1993, Anal. Biochem. 212:457; Schuster et al., 1993, Nature 365:343). Other suitable assays for measuring the binding of one protein to another include, for example, immunoassays such as enzyme linked immunoabsorbent assays (ELISA) and radioimmunoassays (MA); or determination of binding by monitoring the change in the spectroscopic or optical properties of the proteins through fluorescence, UV absorption, circular dichroism, or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Many of these methods use a molecular probe or tag that labels antibodies, proteins, peptides, ligands and other biomolecules.

When comparing the expression level of the least one protein to the control expression level, it is to be understood that the expression level of the at least one protein is compared with the same protein from the control. For example, if the expression level of CCL24 and IL2RA are both determined or analyzed, then the expression level of CCL24 from the subject would be compared to the expression level of CCL24 from the control and likewise, the expression level of IL2RA from the subject would be compared to the expression level of IL2RA from the control.

As used herein, reference to a control, means a subject who is a relevant control to the subject being evaluated by the methods of the present invention. The control can be matched in one or more characteristics to the subject. More particularly, the control can be matched in one or more of the following characteristics, gender, age, smoking history and smoking status (smoker vs. non-smoker). In addition, the control is known not to have lung disease or if lung disease free. The control expression level used in the comparison of the methods of the present invention can be determined from one or more relevant control subjects.

The methods of the present invention can be used to predict, identify and/or treat subjects having a respiratory disease. In various aspects of the invention, the respiratory disease can be chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchitis, asthma and/or emphysema

A biological sample can include any bodily fluid or tissue from a subject that may contain the proteins contemplated herein, as well as the RNA and genes that encode the proteins. In some embodiments, the sample may comprise blood, plasma or peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), leukocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes, basophils or eosinophils. In a preferred aspect, the biological sample is peripheral blood mononuclear cells. In one aspect, the methods of the present invention can be performed on an ex vivo biological sample.

In other various aspects of the invention, the subject can be treated for exacerbation of the respiratory disease such as COPD and/or for treating emphysema by various methods including but not limited to smoking cessation, administration of a bronchodilator, an inhaled corticosteroid, administration of a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, administration of an antibiotic, administration of prednisone, increase in hospital stay, increase dose of antibiotics, pulmonary rehabilitation, oxygen therapy, surgery (bullectomy or lung volume reduction surgery), lifestyle changes (such as avoiding lung irritants) and combinations thereof, as well as, by known standard of care methods for the diseases. In one aspect, standard treatment methods such as those described above, are used in the treatment of subjects identified as at risk of exacerbation of COPD by the identification methods of the present invention. In one aspect, standard treatment methods such as those described above, are used in the treatment of subjects identified as having or predicted to have emphysema by the identification methods of the present invention.

In still other aspects of the invention, kits are considered. In some aspect, the kits can include an antibody, detection ability, and quantification ability. In still other aspects, the detection ability includes immunoflourescence. In one aspect, a kit is considered for indentifying a subject at risk of exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprising at least one antibody that specifically recognizes a protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, and IL23A, wherein recognition of the protein indicates the subject is at risk of exacerbation. In another aspect, a kit is for indentifying a subject at risk of exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprising at least one anti-sense RNA corresponding to a protein selected from the group consisting of CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, and IL23A, wherein the presence of the protein indicates the subject is at risk of exacerbation. In still another aspect, a kit is for indentifying a subject at risk of exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprising a microfluidics system comprising one or more tags for identifying against a protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, and IL23A, wherein identification of the protein indicates the patient is at risk of exacerbation. In yet another aspect, a kit is for determining the expression level of at least one protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, and IL23A, wherein the kit comprises a component selected from an antibody, an antisense RNA molecule and a microfluidics system, wherein in the component detects the expression level of the least one protein. In still another aspect, a kit is for predicting a subject's risk of exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprising at least one antibody that specifically recognizes a protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A, wherein recognition of the protein predicts the subject is at risk of exacerbation. In another aspect, a kit is for predicting a subject's risk of exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprising at least one anti-sense RNA corresponding to a protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A, wherein the presence of the protein predicts the subject is at risk of exacerbation. In yet another aspect, a kit is for predicting a subject's risk of exacerbation of a respiratory disease comprising a microfluidics system comprising one or more tags for identifying against a protein selected from CCL24, IL2RA, APOA4, GC, IgA, LPA, KLK3_F, FAS, NRCAM, TNFRSF10C, IL12B, IL23A, wherein identification of the protein predicts the patient is at risk of exacerbation.

In a further aspect, a kit is considered for indentifying a subject at risk of developing emphysema comprising at least one antibody that specifically recognizes a protein selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13,and CDH1, wherein recognition of the protein indicates the subject is at risk of developing emphysema. In still another aspect, a kit is for indentifying a subject at risk of developing emphysema comprising at least one anti-sense RNA corresponding to a protein selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, and CDH1, wherein the presence of the protein indicates the subject is at risk of developing a respiratory disease. In yet another aspect, a kit is for indentifying a subject at risk of developing emphysema comprising a microfluidics system comprising one or more tags for identifying against a protein selected from the group RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, and CDH1, wherein identification of the protein indicates the patient is at risk of developing a respiratory disease. In another aspect, a kit is for predicting a subject's risk of developing emphysema comprising at least one antibody that specifically recognizes a protein selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, and CDH1, wherein recognition of the protein predicts the subject is at risk of developing emphysema. In yet another aspect, a kit for predicting a subject's risk of developing emphysema comprising at least one anti-sense RNA corresponding to a protein selected from the group consisting of RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, and CDH1, wherein the presence of the protein predicts the subject is at risk of developing emphysema. In still another aspect, a kit is for predicting a subject's risk of developing a respiratory disease comprising a microfluidics system comprising one or more tags for identifying against a protein selected from RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, and CDH1, wherein identification of the protein predicts the patient is at risk of developing emphysema.

COPD is a phenotypically heterogeneous disease, with the presence of emphysema having implications for risk stratification and management (Mohamed Hoesein F A., et al. Lung function decline in male heavy smokers relates to baseline airflow obstruction severity. Chest. December 2012; 142(6):1530-1538; Li Y, et al. Effect of emphysema on lung cancer risk in smokers: a computed tomography-based assessment. Cancer Prey Res (Phila). January 2011; 4(1):43-50; de Torres J P., et al. Assessing the relationship between lung cancer risk and emphysema detected on low-dose CT of the chest. Chest. December 2007; 132(6):1932-1938; Rosenberg S R., et al. Biomarkers in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Transl Res. April 2012; 159(4):228-237). The inventors have successfully identified and replicated a panel of peripheral blood biomarkers that was associated with emphysema independent of age, smoking status, body mass index, airflow limitation, and gender. These biomarkers (RAGE, ICAM1 and CCL20) were associated with emphysema regardless of quantification technique (LAA ≤−950 and ≤−910 HU and LP15A) and were replicated in an independent COPD cohort (TESRA), thus strengthening their potential utility for defining clinically relevant emphysema.

The inventors' previous findings showed lower RAGE levels in peripheral blood as a biomarker of increased emphysema percentage in the lungs independent of gender, age, airflow limitation, body mass index and current smoking status. RAGE (advanced glycosylation end-product receptor also referred to as AGER) is an immunoglobulin family member that is highly expressed in human lung (Buckley S T., et al. The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) and the lung. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2010; 2010:917108). The RAGE pathway and soluble RAGE (sRAGE), a splice variant or proteolytic cleavage product of RAGE, have been associated with several inflammatory conditions such as diabetes mellitus, vascular disease and arthritis (Pullerits R., et al. Decreased levels of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products in patients with rheumatoid arthritis indicating deficient inflammatory control. Arthritis Res Ther. 2005; 7(4):R817-824; Falcone C., et al. Soluble RAGE plasma levels in patients with coronary artery disease and peripheral artery disease. ScientificWorldJournal. 2013; 2013:584504). The sRAGE molecule binds damaged ligands preventing these from binding to cell surface receptors and activating cell signaling pathways (Alexiou P., et al. RAGE: a multi-ligand receptor unveiling novel insights in health and disease. Curr Med Chem. 2010; 17(21):2232-2252). RAGE is active in damage-related conditions such as hyperglycemia, hypoxia, inflammation and oxidative stress (Uchida T., et al. Receptor for advanced glycation end-products is a marker of type I cell injury in acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. May 1, 2006; 173(9):1008-1015). While fasting blood glucose measurements were not available, there was no association between RAGE levels and self-reported history of diabetes mellitus in the COPDGene study subjects. Lower levels of sRAGE have been described in individuals with airflow limitation (Smith DJ., et al. Reduced soluble receptor for advanced glycation end-products in COPD. Eur Respir J. March 2011; 37(3):516-522; Cockayne D A., et al. Systemic biomarkers of neutrophilic inflammation, tissue injury and repair in COPD patients with differing levels of disease severity. PLoS One. 2012; 7(6):e38629. Other studies have found lower sRAGE levels associated with CT-assessed emphysema severity and cor pulmonale (Miniati M., et al. Soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products in COPD: relationship with emphysema and chronic cor pulmonale: a case-control study. Respir Res. 2011; 12:37) and with CT-assessed emphysema and lower diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide using the TESRA (Treatment of Emphysema with a Selective Retinoid Agonist study) data described in this study in combination with the ECLIPSE investigators (Cheng D T., et al. Systemic soluble receptor for advanced glycation endproducts is a biomarker of emphysema and associated with AGER genetic variants in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Oct. 15, 2013; 188(8):948-957). Some studies suggest that sRAGE is increased in the lungs of patients with COPD and high levels of sRAGE may be associated with progression of emphysema (Wu L., et al. Advanced glycation end products and its receptor (RAGE) are increased in patients with COPD. Respir Med. March 2011; 105(3):329-336). Interestingly, animal studies suggest RAGE/sRAGE plays a role in alveolar development and overexpression in mouse lung leads to the development of emphysema (Stogsdill M P., et al. Conditional overexpression of receptors for advanced glycation end-products in the adult murine lung causes airspace enlargement and induces inflammation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. July 2013; 49(1):128-134). This suggests that sRAGE, by acting as a decoy molecule, may have a different role in the developing lung and the adult lung or low sRAGE levels in COPD may result in increased inflammatory signaling in the lung.

The inventors have found decreased ICAM1 levels correlate with increased severity of emphysema on CT scan, independent of smoking status, FEV₁ and other covariates. ICAM1 is expressed on vascular endothelial and immune cells and mediates cell transmigration and adhesion (Di Stefano A., et al. Upregulation of adhesion molecules in the bronchial mucosa of subjects with chronic obstructive bronchitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. March 1994; 149(3 Pt 1):803-810). ICAM1 plays a role in the recruitment of inflammatory cells to the lung. There is currently limited information about the association of ICAM1 to COPD and emphysema. Higher serum levels of soluble ICAM1 have been demonstrated in COPD, where it correlated with the severity of airflow limitation, arterial hypoxemia and hypercarbia (El-Deek SE., et al. Surfactant protein D, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein as biomarkers of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Med Princ Pract. 2013; 22(5):469-474; Huang H., et al. [Association of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 gene K469E polymorphism with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]. Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban. January 2012; 37(1):78-83). Other studies relate ICAM1 levels to active smoking (Lopez-Campos J L., et al. Increased levels of soluble ICAM-1 in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and resistant smokers are related to active smoking. Biomark Med. December 2012; 6(6):805-811) and preliminary analysis from the MESA Lung Study (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis Lung Study) demonstrated that ICAM1 predicted 0.15%/year increase in CT-assessed emphysema, suggesting a role for this molecule as a biomarker of emphysema and that it may play a role in emphysema pathogenesis (Aaron C P., Schwartz, et al. Intercellular Adhesion Molecule (icam)1 And Longitudinal Change In Percent Emphysema And Lung Function: The MESA Lung Study. Am J Rspir Crit Care Med. 2013; 187:A1523).

CCL20 or macrophage inhibitory protein 3a, a chemokine receptor ligand, is involved in the recruitment of inflammatory cells through chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6), its only known receptor (Dieu-Nosjean M C., et al. Macrophage inflammatory protein 3alpha is expressed at inflamed epithelial surfaces and is the most potent chemokine known in attracting Langerhans cell precursors. J Exp Med. Sep. 4, 2000; 192(5):705-718). In both the COPDGene study and the TESRA study, CCL20 levels were inversely and significantly associated with emphysema although methodological considerations prevented a meta-analysis. Lower CCL20 levels have been described in broncho-alveolar lavage fluid of smokers (Meuronen A., et al. Decreased cytokine and chemokine mRNA expression in bronchoalveolar lavage in asymptomatic smoking subjects. Respiration. 2008; 75(4):450-458). The CCR6/CCL20 complex is one of the most potent regulators of dendritic cell migration to the lung and CCR6 knockout mice may be partially protected against cigarette smoke-induced emphysema due to reduced recruitment of inflammatory cells to the lung (Bracke K R., et al. Cigarette smoke-induced pulmonary inflammation and emphysema are attenuated in CCR6-deficient mice. J Immunol. Oct. 1, 2006; 177(7):4350-4359). These data suggest that increased activity of the CCL20/CCR6 pathway may increase the susceptibility to emphysema.

CDH1 was negatively correlated with radiologic emphysema across all emphysema outcome measurements. CDH1 or E cadherin is an epithelial cell adhesion molecule that regulates cell differentiation and morphogenesis, and is associated with lung fibrosis and cancer (Gall T M., et al. Gene of the month: E-cadherin (CDH1). J Clin Pathol. November 2013; 66(11):928-932). CDH1 may be a marker of epithelial cell injury and epithelial to mesenchymal transition that is believed to play a role in small airway remodeling in COPD (Milara J., et al. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition is increased in patients with COPD and induced by cigarette smoke. Thorax. May 2013; 68(5):410-420). Genetic polymorphisms in CDH1 have been associated with development of COPD and decline in lung function (Tsuduki K N H., et al. Genetic polymorphism of e-cadherin and copd. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009; 179:A2999). CDH13 or H cadherin is another adhesion molecule that may influence surfactant protein D levels and serum adiponectin levels, both implicated in the pathogenesis of COPD; however, CDH13 itself has not been associated with quantitative emphysema to date (Kasahara D I., et al. Role of the adiponectin binding protein, t-cadherin (cdh13), in pulmonary responses to sub-acute ozone. PLoS One. 2013; 8:e65829; Takeuchi T., et al. T-cadherin (cdh13, h-cadherin) expression downtregulated surfactant protein d in bronchioloalveolar cells. Virchows Archiv: and international journal of pathology. 2001; 438:370-375). The inventors have found higher levels of CDH13 to be associated with CT-assessed emphysema in the COPDGene cohort, but these were not available for validation in the TESRA cohort. Higher SERPINA7 levels were also associated with more radiologic emphysema. SERPINA7 does not have protease inhibitor capabilities and is also known as thyroid binding globulin. The inventor's findings represent a new association for SERPINA7 with COPD.

As demonstrated in the examples presented herein, peripheral blood biomarkers correlate with the severity and distribution of emphysema and the unique association of some biomarkers with upper zone emphysema can provide insight to the pathogenesis of this particular phenotype of COPD and have therapeutic benefits.

As further demonstrated in the examples below, a peripheral blood biomarker signature of emphysema, independent of other clinical variables, in current and former smokers with normal lung function and with COPD is shown. As discussed below, 115 candidate biomarkers were measured in peripheral blood of 602 individuals enrolled in the COPDGene multi-centered study. Predictive statistical modeling was used to determine their associations with quantitative emphysema measurements on HRCT scans independent of covariates such as age, gender, race, body mass index, active smoking status and airflow limitation. Different biomarker signatures associated with upper lung and lower lung emphysema distributions as a means of phenotyping COPD were also evaluated.

The following examples are provided for illustrative purposes, and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention as claimed herein. Any variations which occur to the skilled artisan are intended to fall within the scope of the present invention. All references cited in the present application are incorporated by reference herein to the extent that there is no inconsistency with the present disclosure.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Study Population

Study participants provided written informed consent. At the time of enrollment, all subjects were 45-80 years old, had a history of smoking at least 10 pack-years, and had not had an acute respiratory exacerbation for at least 30 days prior to enrollment. 1958 of these subjects from 5 clinical centers participated in an ancillary study in which they provided baseline fresh frozen plasma collected using a p100 tube (BD) (Carolan, B. J., et al. The association of adiponectin with computed tomography phenotypes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 188, 561-566 (2013)); 1350 of these subjects met all of the following criteria: they were from two sites, were non-Hispanic White (NHW) and actively participated in a longitudinal follow up study (describe in Regan E.A., et al. Genetic epidemiology of COPD (COPDGene) study design. COPD 7, 32-43 (2010)). From this group, 602 subjects with and without COPD were matched for gender and smoking status and selected for a comprehensive biomarker study.

Biomarker Panel and Data Generation

115 candidate biomarkers were selected from the literature. A custom 15 panel assay for these biomarkers was created using Myriad-RBM (Austin, Tex.) multiplex technology (see Table 1).

TABLE 1 Biomarkers studied Percent Percent VarName RBM_Name Below QNS Mean Median SD A2M Alpha-2-Macroglobulin 0% 0% 1.07 1.00 0.19 (A2Macro) ADIPOQ Adiponectin 0% 0% 6.81 5.30 5.50 APCS Serum Amyloid P- 0% 0% 17.72 17.00 5.11 Component (SAP) APOA4 Apolipoprotein A-IV 0% 0% 315.72 167.00 375.39 (Apo A-IV) AXL AXL Receptor Tyrosine 0% 0% 12.48 12.00 4.32 Kinase (AXL) B2M Beta-2-Microglobulin 0% 0% 1.88 1.80 0.74 (B2M) C3 Complement C3 (C3) 0% 0% 1.23 1.20 0.26 CCL16 Chemokine CC-4 0% 0% 5.67 5.30 2.50 (HCC-4) CCL18 Pulmonary and 0% 0% 96.47 89.00 51.94 Activation-Regulated Chemokine (PARC) CCL22 Macrophage-Derived 0% 0.17%   414.97 400.00 153.72 Chemokine (MDC) CCL23 Myeloid Progenitor 0% 0% 1.47 1.40 0.66 Inhibitory Factor 1 (MPIF-1) CCL24 Eotaxin-2 0% 0.17%   692.59 553.00 488.04 CCL4 Macrophage 0% 0.17%   270.36 197.00 567.59 Inflammatory Protein-1 beta (MIP-1 beta) CCL5 T-Cell-Specific Protein 0% 0% 12.71 9.80 10.32 RANTES (RANTES) CDH1 Cadherin-1 (E-Cad) 0% 0% 3478.57 3110.00 1621.58 CDH13 Cadherin-13 (T-cad) 0% 0.17%   19.12 18.00 5.61 CEACAM1 Carcinoembryonic 0% 0.17%   14.15 14.00 4.11 antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1) CHGA Chromogranin-A (CgA) 0% 0.17%   1227.51 485.50 2525.81 CRP C-Reactive Protein 0% 0% 5.15 2.70 8.02 (CRP) CSTB Cystatin-B 0% 0% 10.33 9.40 4.80 CXCL10 Interferon gamma 0% 0% 318.76 262.00 211.47 Induced Protein 10 (IP- 10) CXCL9 Monokine Induced by 0% 0% 1371.49 1020.00 1362.88 Gamma Interferon (MIG) DCN Decorin 0% 0.17%   2.00 1.90 0.46 F7 Factor VII 0% 0.33%   580.69 563.00 195.11 FTL_FTH1 Ferritin (FRTN) 0% 0% 170.21 120.00 169.73 GC Vitamin D-Binding 0% 0% 277.05 278.00 97.48 Protein (VDBP) ICAM1 Intercellular Adhesion 0% 0.33%   134.63 125.00 47.81 Molecule 1 (ICAM-1) IgM Immunoglobulin M 0% 0% 1.88 1.60 1.45 (IgM) IL16 Interleukin-16 (IL-16) 0% 0.17%   408.68 393.00 167.55 IL18BP Interleukin-18-binding 0% 0.17%   12.47 11.00 5.47 protein (IL-18bp) IL2RA Interleukin-2 receptor 0% 0.17%   2360.53 2100.00 1251.39 alpha (IL-2 receptor alpha) IL6R Interleukin-6 receptor 0% 0% 28.68 28.00 7.77 (IL-6r) KIT Mast/stem cell growth 0% 0% 8.23 8.10 2.02 factor receptor (SCFR) MB Myoglobin 0% 0% 41.71 34.00 32.88 MMP3 Matrix 0% 0.33%   10.01 8.20 6.83 Metalloproteinase-3 (MMP-3) PECAM1 Platelet endothelial cell 0% 0.17%   45.57 44.00 11.76 adhesion molecule (PECAM-1) SELE E-Selectin 0% 0% 8.47 7.60 4.35 SERPINA1 Alpha-1-Antitrypsin 0% 0% 1.85 1.80 0.41 (AAT) SERPINA7 Thyroxine-Binding 0% 0% 37.40 37.00 8.84 Globulin (TBG) SFTPD Pulmonary surfactant- 0% 0.17%   7.35 6.60 3.84 associated protein D (SP-D) SHBG Sex Hormone-Binding 0% 0% 63.31 54.00 37.31 Globulin (SHBG) SLPI Antileukoproteinase 0% 0% 37.99 37.00 8.02 (ALP) SOD1 Superoxide Dismutase 0% 0% 34.81 32.00 15.48 1, soluble (SOD-1) SORT1 Sortilin 0% 0% 6.07 5.80 1.80 SPINK1 Pancreatic secretory 0% 0% 15.24 13.00 8.80 trypsin inhibitor (TATI) TGFB1_LAP Latency-Associated 0% 0.17%   4.59 3.80 3.02 Peptide of Transforming Growth Factor beta 1 (LAP TGF-b1) THBD Thrombomodulin (TM) 0% 0% 4.60 4.40 1.26 TIMP1 Tissue Inhibitor of 0% 0% 76.36 72.00 20.72 Metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP-1) TIMP2 Tissue Inhibitor of 0% 0% 66.98 66.00 11.65 Metalloproteinases 2 (TIMP-2) TNFRSF10C TNF-Related 0% 0% 13.66 13.00 7.45 Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand Receptor 3 (TRAIL-R3) TNFRSF11B Osteoprotegerin (OPG) 0% 0.17%   5.69 5.50 1.66 TNFRSF1A Tumor Necrosis Factor 0% 0.17%   1740.53 1630.00 694.70 Receptor I (TNF RI) TNFRSF1B Tumor necrosis factor 0% 0% 6.19 5.60 2.43 receptor 2 (TNFR2) VCAM1 Vascular Cell Adhesion 0% 0% 536.37 505.00 183.46 Molecule-1 (VCAM-1) FGA_FGB_FGG Fibrinogen 0.17%   0% 4.28 4.20 1.09 IL18 Interleukin-18 (IL-18) 0.17%   0.17%   259.54 229.00 157.76 LPA Apolipoprotein(a) 0.17%   0% 8.05 7.85 1.97 (Lp(a)) MMP9 Matrix 0.17%   0.33%   373.31 299.50 265.66 Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) NPPB_PH N-terminal prohormone 0.17%   0% 721.40 460.50 903.87 of brain natriuretic peptide (NT proBNP) NRCAM Neuronal Cell Adhesion 0.17%   0% 1.02 0.90 0.73 Molecule (Nr-CAM) SERPINA3 Alpha-1- 0.17%   0% 788.58 749.00 371.21 Antichymotrypsin (AACT) CCL2 Monocyte Chemotactic 0.33%   0.17%   151.00 139.00 59.99 Protein 1 (MCP-1) CCL8 Monocyte Chemotactic 0.33%   0% 30.30 27.00 23.76 Protein 2 (MCP-2) IgA Immunoglobulin A (IgA) 0.33%   0% 2.32 2.00 1.36 ANGPT1 Angiopoietin-1 (ANG-1) 0.50%   0.17%   7.76 7.00 3.38 BDNF Brain-Derived 0.50%   0.33%   4.21 3.00 3.93 Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) CKM_CKB Creatine Kinase-MB 0.50%   0.17%   1.81 1.40 1.41 (CK-MB) MDK Midkine 0.66%   0.17%   2.16 2.00 1.04 KITLG Stem Cell Factor (SCF) 0.83%   0.33%   313.34 302.00 102.99 SERPINE1 Plasminogen Activator 0.83%   0% 38.57 34.00 23.99 Inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) CXCL5 Epithelial-Derived 1.00%   0.17%   0.95 0.70 0.90 Neutrophil-Activating Protein 78 (ENA-78) VWF von Willebrand Factor 1.16%   0% 84.05 77.00 41.75 (vWF) AGER Receptor for advanced 1.33%   0% 2.75 2.30 2.03 glycosylation end products (RAGE) HGF Hepatocyte Growth 1.33%   0% 5.79 5.60 2.56 Factor (HGF) IL8 Interleukin-8 (IL-8) 1.33%   0.17%   10.73 9.40 6.10 VEGFA Vascular Endothelial 1.33%   0.33%   128.23 116.00 59.23 Growth Factor (VEGF) HP Haptoglobin 1.49%   0% 1.60 1.40 0.92 CCL13 Monocyte Chemotactic 2.65%   0% 1913.71 1650.00 1340.28 Protein 4 (MCP-4) FAS FASLG Receptor (FAS) 3.48%   0% 18.44 15.00 23.54 LTF Lactoferrin (LTF) 4.15%   0% 16.40 14.00 9.80 IFNG Interferon gamma (IFN- 8.62%   0.17%   3.81 3.40 2.28 gamma) CA9 Carbonic anhydrase 9 43.28%    0.17%   0.52 0.49 0.25 (CA-9) CCL11 Eotaxin-1 56.38%    0.33%   199.75 180.00 62.97 CCL20 Macrophage 73.13%    0% 84.83 50.00 149.04 Inflammatory Protein-3 alpha (MIP-3 alpha) CCL3 Macrophage 84.74%    0.17%   67.19 47.00 71.88 Inflammatory Protein-1 alpha (MIP-1 alpha) IgE Immunoglobulin E (IgE) 43.62%    0.17%   166.89 57.00 369.27 IL10 Interleukin-10 (IL-10) 90.55%    0.17%   14.78 8.90 27.31 IL12B Interleukin-12 Subunit 38.31%    0.33%   0.30 0.27 0.08 p40 (IL-12p40) IL15 Interleukin-15 (IL-15) 58.37%    0.33%   0.62 0.55 0.23 IL17A Interleukin-17 (IL-17) 94.03%    0.33%   26.33 3.60 132.29 IL1RN Interleukin-1 receptor 76.62%    0.33%   300.85 255.00 181.14 antagonist (IL-1ra) IL23A Interleukin-23 (IL-23) 75.95%    0.33%   0.88 0.82 0.18 INS_intact Proinsulin, Intact 83.75%    0% 23.20 17.00 18.61 INS_total Proinsulin, Total 83.75%    0% 98.70 68.00 76.12 KLK3_F Prostate-Specific 49.75%    0.17%   0.21 0.16 0.17 Antigen, Free (PSA-f) MDA_LDL Malondialdehyde- 82.42%    0% 36.10 32.00 14.59 Modified Low-Density Lipoprotein (MDA-LDL) MICA MHC class I chain- 45.94%    0.17%   144.94 124.00 77.31 related protein A (MICA) OLR1 Lectin-Like Oxidized 94.53%    0% 1.35 0.90 1.20 LDL Receptor 1 (LOX- 1) IL1A Interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1 95.52%    0.33%   0.00 0.00 0.00 alpha) TNF Tumor Necrosis Factor 97.68%    0.17%   53.54 33.00 42.80 alpha (TNF-alpha) IL6 Interleukin-6 (IL-6) 98.18%    0.17%   87.80 24.00 152.06 HSPD1 Heat Shock Protein 60 98.34%    0% 105.40 106.00 40.94 (HSP-60) LTA Tumor Necrosis Factor 98.51%    0.17%   35.63 29.00 25.01 beta (TNF-beta) IL1B Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 98.67%    0.33%   5.67 5.65 0.78 beta) IL2 Interleukin-2 (IL-2) 98.84%    0.17%   20.02 9.75 25.48 IL7 Interleukin-7 (IL-7) 98.84%    0.17%   17.82 11.00 16.39 IL13 Interleukin-13 (IL-13) 99.17%    0.17%   7.68 6.70 2.22 IL12A_IL12B Interleukin-12 Subunit 99.34%    0.33%   68.50 68.50 23.33 p70 (IL-12p70) IL4 Interleukin-4 (IL-4) 99.34%    0.17%   65.00 48.00 44.03 CSF2 Granulocyte- 99.67%    0.17%   832.00 832.00 NA Macrophage Colony- Stimulating Factor (GM- CSF) IL3 Interleukin-3 (IL-3) 99.83%    0.17%   NaN NA NA IL5 Interleukin-5 (IL-5) 99.83%    0.17%   NaN NA NA NGF Nerve Growth Factor 100%  0% NaN NA NA beta (NGF-beta) S100B S100 calcium-binding 100%  0% NaN NA NA protein B (S100-B)

Clinical Data and Definitions

Full details about COPDGene study and the collection of clinical data has been described previously (Regan E.A., et al. Genetic epidemiology of COPD (COPDGene) study design. COPD 7, 32-43 (2010)). COPD was defined as post bronchodilator ratio of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV₁) to forced expiratory volume (FVC) <0.70. COPD was further classified 1-4 based on Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) guidelines (Fabbri, L. M., et al. Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of COPD: 2003 update Eur Respir J 22, 1-2). Current or ex-smokers at risk for COPD but without spirometric evidence of airflow obstruction (FEV₁/FVC≥0.70) were classified as controls (formerly GOLD 0). Subjects with FEV₁/FVC≥0.70 and FEV₁<80% were considered unclassified (GOLD U) (30). Emphysema was quantified by the percent of lung voxels <−950 Hounsfield Units (HU) on the inspiratory images of CT scan. Gas trapping was quantified by the percent of lung voxels <-856 HU on the expiratory images. Respiratory health questionnaires included: Medical Research Council (MRC) dyspnea score, (SF-36), and St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ).

Acute episode of respiratory disease were ascertained on LFU by asking “Since we last spoke, have you had an episode of increased cough and phlegm or shortness of breath, which lasted 48 hours or more?” If answered yes, subjects were further asked whether they received antibiotics or corticosteroids. Additional questions asked at each LFU contact included whether the subject urgently visited his/her doctor's office, went to an emergency room, or was hospitalized. Subjects were considered to have experienced a moderate episode if they answered yes to either antibiotic or corticosteroid use. A severe episode was a report of hospitalization for an acute episode of respiratory disease. The total number of episodes was defined as the sum during each 6-month follow-up period. The time to an episode was determined using the date at which an episode was first reported.

Statistical Analysis

Unless otherwise specified, analyses were conducted using SASversion 9.3 (SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.) or R version 2.14 (R Development Core Team, Vienna Austria). Colinnearity among biomarkers was assessed using Pearson correlation. Biomarkers with more than 10% and less than 95% of values below the lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) were transformed into binary variables (above or below LLOQ). Biomarkers with greater than 95% values below LLOQ were excluded from analysis. For all other biomarkers an empirical normal quantile transformation projecting the ranks onto an inverse normal distribution (Singh D., et al. Sputum neutrophils as a biomarker in COPD: findings from the ECLIPSE study. Respir Res 11, 77 (2010)). Episodes in the year prior to enrollment and during longitudinal follow up were modeled with negative binomial regression with offset for exposure time and a zero inflation model to account for the excess number of subjects who reported no acute episodes of respiratory disease. Cox proportional hazards multiple regression was used to determine hazard ratios for time to first episode. The stepwise multiple regression models variable selection method used an entry probability <0.15 and exit probability of >0.05.

Results Study Population

Demographics, physiology, health scores, quantitative CT measurements and medication use by COPD status are listed in Table 2. There were differences between controls and individuals with COPD with respect to age at enrollment and pack-year history of smoking (p<0.001) with older age and higher pack-years in the COPD group. With regard to gender and smoking status, there were no statistically significant differences in distribution between the control group and COPD group (p>0.05). Body mass index (BMI) was lower in the COPD subjects (p=0.016). Emphysema, oxygen use, airway wall measurements, and health assessment scores (MRC, SF-36, and SGRQ) were significantly worse for subjects with COPD (P<0.001).

TABLE 2 Subject Characteristics (N = 602) Control COPD (N = 249) (N = 353) P Value Age (yr) 61 ± 8  65 ± 8  <0.001 Female gender (%) 50 52 N.S. Current smoker (%) 27 23 N.S. Smoking History (pack-years) 38 ± 23 54 ± 27 <0.001 Chronic Bronchitis (%) 10 25 <0.001 GERD (%) 30 35 N.S. Physiology Body-mass index (kg/m²) 29 ± 5  28 ± 6   0.016 FEV₁ post bronchodilator (liters) 2.94 ± 0.71 1.34 ± 0.63 <0.001 FEV₁ post bronchodilator (% predicted) 98 ± 11 47 ± 18 FEV₁/FVC post bronchodilator 0.78 ± 0.05 0.45 ± 0.14 Change in FEV₁ pre- and post-bronchodilator (%) 4.4 ± 5.0  9.4 ± 11.8 <0.001 Distance walked in 6 min (m) 506 ± 93  291 ± 107 <0.001 BODE index 0.3 ± 0.7 2.9 ± 2.0 <0.001 Using oxygen on enrollment (%)  3 52 <0.001 HRCT measurements Emphysema 2 ± 3 15 ± 13 <0.001 Gas Trapping 9 ± 7 42 ± 21 <0.001 Pi10 3.60 ± 0.10 3.70 ± 0.13 <0.001 WA % 59.2 ± 2.6  62.4 ± 2.8  <0.001 Patient-reported outcomes MRC dyspnea score 0.5 ± 1.0 2.2 ± 1.4 <0.001 SF-36 General Health* 71 ± 22 52 ± 24 <0.001 SGRQ 12 ± 15 39 ± 21 <0.001 Exacerbations 12 months prior to entry Moderate and severe 0.16 ± 0.60 0.92 ± 1.37 <0.001 Severe (hospitalized) 0.03 ± 0.17 0.25 ± 0.43 <0.001 Exacerbations during longitudinal follow up Years followed 3.1 ± 0.8 3.1 ± 0.9 N.S. Moderate and severe (#/year) 0.24 ± 0.71 1.02 ± 1.74 <0.001 Severe hospitalized (#/year) 0.04 ± 0.24 0.32 ± 0.91 <0.001 GOLD 0: (FEV₁/FVC >0.7 and FEV₁ % >80).; GOLD 1 (FEV₁/FVC >0.7 and FEV₁ % <80)Lung attenuation area (LAA); Hounsfield Units (HU); forced expiratory volume at one second (FEV₁); forced vital capacity (FVC); long-acting ß-agonist bronchodilator (LABA); inhaled corticosteroid (ICS); Emphysema (LAA % <−950 HU) on inspiration; Gas Trapping (LAA % <−856) on expiration; Pi10 (square root of wall area percent for 10 μum airway; WA % (segmental wall area %); Medical Research Council (MRC); *Short Form Health Survey (SF-36): only 47% of cohort had this measurement; St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRC); means ± standard deviations are shown for continuous measures whereas dichotomous variables are shown as %.; P values represent probability that GOLD group variable means are the same.

Biomarker Panel

Of the 115 biomarkers listed in Table 1, 82 had at least 92% of values above the lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ); these biomarkers were transformed using an empirical normal quantile transformation. 16 biomarkers were excluded from analysis because more than 95% of values were below LLOQ. The remaining 17 biomarkers were transformed into a binary variables (above or below LLOQ). Two biomarkers (intact and total insulin) were highly correlated (p=XX). Thus total insulin was removed from the analysis.

Plasma Biomarkers Associated with Exacerbations Prior to Enrollment

In the 12 months preceding enrollment, subjects with COPD reported significantly more moderate and severe episodes of acute respiratory disease compared to control groups (Table 1; P<0.001). Associations between individual biomarkers and exacerbations in the 12 months prior to enrollment in COPDGene were performed with adjustments for covariates (SGRQ score, FEV₁%, gender, gastroesophageal disease). 20 biomarkers were associated with acute episodes of airways disease requiring prednisone and antibiotics (moderate and severe) and 30 biomarkers were associated with hospitalizations for acute episodes of airway disease (Table 3 and 4).

TABLE 3 Biomarkers associated with moderate or severe episodes of acute airway disease in 12 months prior to enrollment in COPDGene (adjusted for FEV1 %, SGRQ, gender and GERD) Biomarker NB B NB SE NB P Gamma B Gamma SE Gamma P A2M 0.064528 0.098235 0.5113 −1.367921 3.166092 0.6657 ADIPOQ 0.081518 0.082532 0.3233 0.258507 . . APCS −0.136676 0.085045 0.1080 −0.872489 1.042188 0.4025 APOA4 −0.047556 0.075820 0.5305 −12.158565 14.907162  0.4147 AXL 0.078339 0.070078 0.2636 0.229506 . . B2M 0.140425 0.081521 0.0850 −317.357045 78.400146  <.0001 C3 −0.015357 0.091325 0.8665 −1.653495 1.932202 0.3921 CCL16 0.110559 0.075178 0.1414 0.119469 . . CCL18 0.123602 0.076055 0.1041 0.487202 . . CCL22 0.096820 0.084338 0.2510 1.251043 0.963607 0.1942 CCL23 0.048617 0.085078 0.5677 −0.956831 6.398560 0.8811 CCL24 −0.080904 0.078156 0.3006 179.960441 115.713919  0.1199 CCL4 0.159465 0.074961 0.0334 −0.024912 . . CCL5 −0.089408 0.090829 0.3249 −0.923787 0.811547 0.2550 CDH1 0.073533 0.080325 0.3600 1.528872 1.782482 0.3910 CDH13 −0.000809 0.087536 0.9926 −2.870344 7.649553 0.7075 CEACAM1 −0.015980 0.092957 0.8635 −2.000365 1.327408 0.1318 CHGA 0.041851 0.084605 0.6208 −0.604732 1.007946 0.5485 CRP 0.075465 0.078050 0.3336 −0.639013 . . CSTB 0.022802 0.086065 0.7911 −5.341694 5.546891 0.3355 CXCL10 0.028490 0.074027 0.7003 −0.028153 . . CXCL9 0.033267 0.078109 0.6702 0.693491 . . DCN 0.167600 0.085273 0.0494 0.884249 4.112891 0.8298 F7 −0.132585 0.075358 0.0785 −0.431055 . . FTL_FTH1 0.029829 0.078735 0.7048 0.228806 . . GC −0.016202 0.091258 0.8591 −2.737896 1.056345 0.0095 ICAM1 0.104928 0.074717 0.1602 1.081952 . . IgM 0.147241 0.074940 0.0494 233.667152 107.568781  0.0298 IL16 0.162077 0.071772 0.0239 −0.080032 . . IL18BP 0.159476 0.074320 0.0319 230.283009 107.991830  0.0330 IL2RA 0.152237 0.074970 0.0423 0.552444 . . IL6R −0.079244 0.083822 0.3445 −1.440029 0.948270 0.1289 KIT 0.071812 0.083022 0.3871 1.633732 2.562384 0.5237 MB 0.075521 0.090779 0.4055 −1.366233 2.172431 0.5294 MMP3 0.114981 0.091205 0.2074 −7.896536 7.466145 0.2902 PECAM1 0.023103 0.072410 0.7497 −0.174684 . . SELE −0.004063 0.076526 0.9577 −287.191583 92.080067  0.0018 SERPINA1 0.268103 0.075081 0.0004 −0.735641 . . SERPINA7 −0.039104 0.077345 0.6132 0.575974 . . SFTPD 0.113685 0.083994 0.1759 −1.370209 1.312599 0.2965 SHBG 0.079159 0.081922 0.3339 1.747962 1.453889 0.2293 SLPI 0.115082 0.076856 0.1343 106.617549 0.657874 <.0001 SOD1 0.070077 0.072666 0.3349 −0.377605 . . SORT1 −0.020639 0.090144 0.8189 −0.613395 1.099175 0.5768 SPINK1 0.082417 0.071171 0.2469 0.175929 . . TGFB1_LAP −0.039542 0.077664 0.6107 −315.037678 76.840024  <.0001 THBD 0.063553 0.073395 0.3865 −2.911819 2.753673 0.2903 TIMP1 0.100034 0.091043 0.2719 0.981577 1.188477 0.4089 TIMP2 0.109982 0.067601 0.1038 0.179489 . . TNFRSF10C 0.128177 0.079655 0.1076 −8.658054 5.687262 0.1279 TNFRSF11B 0.067936 0.077028 0.3778 0.162384 . . TNFRSF1A −0.022268 0.092199 0.8092 −1.374140 0.616627 0.0258 TNFRSF1B 0.137617 0.074243 0.0638 147.690839 135.828613  0.2769 VCAM1 0.138108 0.073046 0.0587 0.284916 . . FGA_FGB_FGG 0.137680 0.079976 0.0852 1.562703 1.343998 0.2449 IL18 0.019625 0.080287 0.8069 −439.669393 79.025678  <.0001 LPA −0.027305 0.085523 0.7495 −0.857016 0.598677 0.1523 MMP9 0.049616 . . −0.612151 868.145810  0.9994 NPPB_PH 0.133472 0.075147 0.0757 −0.416595 . . NRCAM 0.165310 0.094533 0.0803 0.951112 3.303613 0.7734 SERPINA3 −0.074096 0.082669 0.3701 −0.660587 0.539708 0.2210 CCL2 0.042438 0.082963 0.6090 −2.716479 2.782283 0.3289 CCL8 0.006292 0.101283 0.9505 −1.422363 1.404356 0.3111 IgA 0.040483 0.075711 0.5929 0.396179 . . ANGPT1 −0.089356 0.082159 0.2768 −1.264333 1.413424 0.3710 BDNF −0.086599 0.092438 0.3488 −1.061689 1.046728 0.3104 CKM_CKB 0.032064 0.087839 0.7151 −2.906581 2.686477 0.2793 MDK 0.047009 0.075053 0.5311 0.071073 . . KITLG 0.075651 0.083915 0.3673 −1.393916 1.403172 0.3205 SERPINE1 −0.059182 0.077999 0.4480 −6.710905 4.952651 0.1754 CXCL5 −0.016295 0.097975 0.8679 −0.978378 0.850357 0.2499 VWF 0.076995 0.084810 0.3640 0.682085 1.751311 0.6969 AGER 0.097353 0.078061 0.2123 −0.197301 . . HGF 0.129806 0.083636 0.1207 −1.765623 4.131078 0.6691 IL8 0.087671 0.076985 0.2548 0.341952 . . VEGFA −0.022738 0.090616 0.8019 −1.019436 0.741838 0.1694 HP −0.054074 0.085563 0.5274 1.511215 2.407880 0.5303 CCL13 0.105808 0.097981 0.2802 −0.835362 1.181513 0.4795 FAS 0.122278 0.076374 0.1094 −37.570923 0.430153 <.0001 LTF 0.054899 0.079116 0.4877 −3.934146 7.554494 0.6025 IFNG 0.035355 0.072507 0.6258 0.238822 . . CA9 0 0.054074 0.176178 0.7589 −17.677049 . . CCL11 0 −0.064180 0.149196 0.6671 −0.448241 . . CCL20 0 −0.275415 0.157777 0.0809 −0.423328 . . CCL3 0 −0.301094 0.191033 0.1150 −2.496925 . . IgE 0 −0.194264 0.151799 0.2006 −3.353686 . . IL10 0 0.146005 0.245385 0.5518 19.235715 0.527476 <.0001 IL12B 0 −0.184935 0.174487 0.2892 −18.337859 . . IL15 0 −0.132093 0.182757 0.4698 −17.049353 . . IL17A 0 −0.525894 0.334025 0.1154 −19.671730 . . IL1RN 0 0.177593 0.194112 0.3602 18.144964 0.694093 <.0001 IL23A 0 −0.066965 0.213279 0.7535 18.806752 0.798742 <.0001 INS_intact 0 −0.013736 0.299864 0.9635 −18.694674 . . INS_total 0 −0.104754 0.275286 0.7036 −17.941589 . . KLK3_F 0 0.253262 0.507067 0.6175 17.183559 1.421171 <.0001 MDA_LDL 0 −0.245806 0.179309 0.1704 −3.564266 . . MICA 0 0.143992 0.181545 0.4277 18.211769 0.692406 <.0001 OLR1 0 −0.200556 0.281777 0.4766 −0.140208 . . NB B = negative binomial coefficient; NB SE = negative binomial coefficient standard error; NB P = probability that NB B is zero; Gamma is from zero inflation model; (a negative binomial model with zero inflation)

TABLE 4 Biomarkers associated with hospitalizations for acute airway disease in 12 months prior to enrollment in COPDGene (adjusted for FEV1 %, SGRQ, gender and GERD) Biomarker NB B NB SE NB P Gamma B Gamma SE Gamma P A2M −0.241809 0.212894 0.2560 −1.044216 1.122284 0.3521 ADIPOQ −0.089329 0.199417 0.6542 −0.466993 0.916319 0.6103 APCS −0.299773 0.166051 0.0710 −1.345774 4.923690 0.7846 APOA4 −0.446526 0.204130 0.0287 −1.782041 0.813814 0.0285 AXL 0.073085 0.159323 0.6464 −0.904254 0.501889 0.0716 B2M 0.417983 0.248387 0.0924 0.591672 0.939811 0.5290 C3 −0.000529 0.198880 0.9979 1.001656 1.015508 0.3240 CCL16 −0.173945 0.143174 0.2244 −168.719201 141.375012  0.2327 CCL18 −0.008260 0.190600 0.9654 −0.261351 0.497118 0.5991 CCL22 0.080036 0.167006 0.6318 0.405946 0.336934 0.2283 CCL23 0.261274 0.188093 0.1648 0.635430 1.075216 0.5545 CCL24 −0.046743 0.185696 0.8013 −0.362568 0.418178 0.3859 CCL4 −0.042380 0.154651 0.7841 −688.803966 92.255257  <.0001 CCL5 −0.441052 0.166113 0.0079 −0.150705 0.506231 0.7659 CDH1 0.102698 0.201539 0.6104 0.318758 1.404673 0.8205 CDH13 −0.269965 0.169126 0.1104 −5.800987 3.859801 0.1329 CEACAM1 0.119335 0.226160 0.5977 0.451568 1.687940 0.7891 CHGA 0.060578 0.178193 0.7339 0.246290 0.606286 0.6846 CRP 0.230848 0.138241 0.0949 316.892315 65.676690  <.0001 CSTB −0.189351 0.201562 0.3475 −2.066258 1.100505 0.0604 CXCL10 0.039258 0.190277 0.8365 −0.282832 0.401212 0.4808 CXCL9 0.125957 0.139340 0.3660 −0.129611 998.842832  0.9999 DCN 0.018076 0.154764 0.9070 −0.185208 0.616577 0.7639 F7 −0.192945 0.168497 0.2522 −0.014814 1.175570 0.9899 FTL_FTH1 −0.066095 0.141985 0.6416 −603.864369 65.123072  <.0001 GC −0.315901 0.221910 0.1546 −1.566829 0.998773 0.1167 ICAM1 0.515710 0.186449 0.0057 0.449753 0.607085 0.4588 IgM −0.020509 0.139324 0.8830 −0.076985 . . IL16 −0.046901 0.157005 0.7652 −0.677165 0.408599 0.0975 IL18BP 0.357923 0.158507 0.0239 −0.092246 0.654107 0.8878 IL2RA 0.267025 0.194038 0.1688 −0.284972 0.694945 0.6818 IL6R 0.222878 0.226026 0.3241 0.846488 2.009774 0.6736 KIT −0.009806 0.158534 0.9507 0.292581 0.458514 0.5234 MB −0.129749 0.152712 0.3955 −130.121701 277.853431  0.6396 MMP3 0.028684 0.344497 0.9336 −2.276561 9.644191 0.8134 PECAM1 0.055118 0.130939 0.6738 0.109134 . . SELE 0.208584 0.182098 0.2520 0.247316 1.267840 0.8453 SERPINA1 0.673086 0.206252 0.0011 1.528146 0.985311 0.1209 SERPINA7 −0.055159 0.215798 0.7983 −0.397180 0.971641 0.6827 SFTPD 0.146991 0.198532 0.4591 −0.540496 0.652574 0.4075 SHBG 0.247936 0.165267 0.1336 3.579999 3.070030 0.2436 SLPI 0.228753 0.189056 0.2263 0.575665 0.848797 0.4976 SOD1 −0.189236 0.135207 0.1616 0.136348 . . SORT1 −0.041637 0.210876 0.8435 −0.565226 0.520185 0.2772 SPINK1 0.351665 0.132386 0.0079 0.344807 0.279105 0.2167 TGFB1_LAP −0.407230 0.170402 0.0169 −0.390683 0.539246 0.4688 THBD 0.123378 0.129101 0.3392 −238.957237 104.994010  0.0229 TIMP1 −0.090598 0.137970 0.5114 −210.221550 168.912324  0.2133 TIMP2 0.024506 0.182370 0.8931 0.174175 0.468645 0.7101 TNFRSF10C −0.016889 0.159730 0.9158 −415.250792 215.389404  0.0539 TNFRSF11B −0.150193 0.173408 0.3864 −0.222151 0.922218 0.8096 TNFRSF1A −0.002748 0.237745 0.9908 −1.400497 0.848379 0.0988 TNFRSF1B 0.242545 0.219363 0.2689 −0.807552 1.280250 0.5282 VCAM1 0.178006 0.166605 0.2853 −0.473419 0.316744 0.1350 FGA_FGB_FGG −0.005139 0.198339 0.9793 −0.379748 1.693361 0.8226 IL18 0.089720 0.234913 0.7025 −0.883242 0.637312 0.1658 LPA −0.056014 0.159414 0.7253 −2.021539 6.382970 0.7515 MMP9 −0.013561 0.137888 0.9217 −0.348188 . . NPPB_PH 0.203177 0.135012 0.1324 0.109309 . . NRCAM 0.167175 0.133134 0.2092 −0.032562 294.535122  0.9999 SERPINA3 0.028402 0.141690 0.8411 167.718441 95.026806  0.0776 CCL2 −0.108676 0.173457 0.5310 −0.249440 0.419765 0.5524 CCL8 −0.283070 0.196491 0.1497 −1.092187 0.669190 0.1027 IgA −0.033340 0.136571 0.8071 0.175901 345.973496  0.9996 ANGPT1 −0.458108 0.165232 0.0056 −0.670828 0.622692 0.2813 BDNF −0.518180 0.174963 0.0031 −0.075255 0.432847 0.8620 CKM_CKB −0.336683 0.206715 0.1034 −1.151950 0.669339 0.0852 MDK 0.097580 0.200156 0.6259 −0.271703 3.520990 0.9385 KITLG 0.048212 0.129824 0.7104 0.004373 . . SERPINE1 −0.536450 0.154229 0.0005 −4.734640 6.253283 0.4490 CXCL5 −0.624196 0.200746 0.0019 −0.842371 0.667638 0.2070 VWF 0.028570 0.132590 0.8294 −0.048378 . . AGER 0.698411 0.168658 <.0001 1.023391 0.439645 0.0199 HGF −0.030798 0.182530 0.8660 −0.509803 1.725076 0.7676 IL8 0.021335 0.134992 0.8744 −0.005056 . . VEGFA −0.187405 0.165596 0.2578 −0.419354 0.348614 0.2290 HP −0.057698 0.189324 0.7606 0.620277 1.060428 0.5586 CCL13 −0.121122 0.149563 0.4180 −656.938342 59.316461  <.0001 FAS −0.000739 0.138960 0.9958 −233.469986 8.306099 <.0001 LTF −0.021575 0.136091 0.8740 0.257628 743.047342  0.9997 IFNG 0.014045 0.133301 0.9161 −0.214921 721.926456  0.9998 CA9 0 0.098290 0.450892 0.8274 −14.871186 . . CCL11 0 −0.009931 0.454508 0.9826 15.236634 3.418052 <.0001 CCL20 0 −0.418010 0.494842 0.3983 17.443009 0.904449 <.0001 CCL3 0 0.282492 0.429761 0.5110 18.689217 0.529444 <.0001 IgE 0 −0.026653 0.451606 0.9529 17.368899 0.764092 <.0001 IL10 0 0.155459 0.514562 0.7626 18.092972 0.681601 <.0001 IL12B 0 −0.604121 0.422629 0.1529 −18.278624 . . IL15 0 −0.220127 0.455995 0.6293 −15.250660 . . IL17A 0 0.357547 0.773156 0.6438 15.088348 5.770551 0.0089 IL1RN 0 0.528039 0.512668 0.3030 14.719064 1.806566 <.0001 IL23A 0 0.672307 0.465195 0.1484 17.606857 0.532548 <.0001 INS_intact 0 −0.105176 0.619856 0.8653 −16.879610 . . INS_total 0 −0.076414 0.580083 0.8952 −14.991322 . . KLK3_F 0 0.860823 0.816469 0.2917 17.416145 0.720743 <.0001 MDA_LDL 0 −0.352323 0.448761 0.4324 17.591840 0.640241 <.0001 MICA 0 0.925802 0.402440 0.0214 18.243832 0.390632 <.0001 OLR1 0 −0.025457 0.542261 0.9626 18.652550 0.584472 <.0001 NB B = negative binomial coefficient; NB SE = negative binomial coefficient standard error; NB P = probability that NB B is zero; Gamma is from zero inflation model; (a negative binomial model with zero inflation) Plasma Biomarkers Predictive of Exacerbations after Enrollment

Subjects were followed for 3.1±0.8 years after enrollment and assessed every six months for new exacerbations. 20% of subjects without COPD and 56% of subjects with COPD reported at least one episode of acute airway disease requiring antibiotics or prednisone during the follow up period; 2% of control and 25% of COPD subjects reported at least one hospitalization for an acute episode airways disease during follow up. Cox proportional hazards multiple biomarker modeling with adjustment for clinical covariates revealed 7 biomarkers independently associated with time to first episode of acute airway disease (Table 5) and 7 biomarkers independently associated with time to first hospitalization for acute airway disease (Table 6). Both chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 24 (CCL24) and interleukin 2 receptor-α (IL2RA) were independently associated with antibiotic/corticosteroid treatment and hospitalization for acute episodes of airway disease (FIGS. 1 and 2). Apolipoprotein A-IV (APOA4), Group-specific component (vitamin D binding protein) (GC), Immunoglobulin A (IgA), Lipoprotein A (LPA), and Kallikrein-related peptidase 3 (KLK3) were associated with antibiotic/corticosteroid treatment but not hospitalization. Fas cell surface death receptor (FAS), Neuronal cell adhesion molecule (NRCAM), Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, member 10c, decoy without an intracellular domain (TNFRSF10C), Interleukin 12 subunit p40 (IL12B), and Interleukin 23, α-subunit p19 (IL23A) were associated only with hospitalization.

TABLE 5 Factors independently associated with acute episodes of respiratory disease treated with antibiotics or corticosteroids on longitudinal follow-up Risk Factor HR (95% CI) Pr > ChiSq SGRQ score (per 4 units) 1.10 (1.06-1.13) <.0001 Exacerbation Frequency in prior 1.23 (1.13-1.34) <.0001 12 months (per event) FEV₁ % post bronchodilator (per 10%) 0.92 (0.86-0.98) 0.0090 CCL24 (per SD) 0.83 (0.72-0.95) 0.0067 IL2RA (per SD) 1.28 (1.11-1.47) 0.0006 APOA4 (per SD) 0.87 (0.77-0.99) 0.0417 GC (per SD) 1.15 (1.00-1.31) 0.0471 IgA (per SD) 0.80 (0.69-0.91) 0.0011 LPA (per SD) 1.29 (1.13-1.46) 0.0001 KLK3_F (above LLOQ) 0.66 (0.51-0.86) 0.0019 HR = hazard ratio (adjusted odds ratio)

TABLE 6 Factors independently associated with hospitalizations from acute episodes of respiratory disease on longitudinal follow-up Risk Factor HR (95% CI) Pr > ChiSq SGRQ score (per 4 units) 1.14 (1.08-1.20) <.0001 Exacerbation Frequency in prior 1.33 (1.17-1.53) <.0001 12 months (per event) FEV₁ % post bronchodilator (per 10%) 0.84 (0.75-0.93) 0.0013 CCL24 (per SD) 0.72 (0.57-0.91) 0.0064 IL2RA(per SD) 1.49 (1.17-1.90) 0.0012 FAS(per SD) 0.77 (0.62-0.96) 0.0190 NRCAM(per SD) 1.33 (1.06-1.69) 0.0154 TNFRSF10C(per SD) 0.73 (0.58-0.91) 0.0060 IL12B(above LLOQ) 1.83 (1.12-3.00) 0.0165 IL23A(above LLOQ) 1.66 (1.02-2.70) 0.0402 HR = hazard ratio (adjusted odds ratio)

Example 2

This example shows that there is a biomarker signature of emphysema in peripheral blood that can provide information about the presence and distribution of emphysema in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

COPD is a phenotypically heterogeneous disease. In COPD, the presence of emphysema phenotype is associated with increased mortality and increased risk of lung cancer and its distribution has implications for treatments. High resolution computed tomography (HRCT) chest scans are useful in characterizing the extent and distribution of emphysema but increase cost and raise concerns about radiation exposure. Systemic biomarkers may provide additional information in differentiating COPD phenotypes.

-   Methods: 114 plasma biomarkers were measured using a custom assay in     588 individuals enrolled in the COPDGene study. Quantitative     emphysema measurements included percent low lung attenuation (% LAA)     ≤−950 HU, ≤−910 HU and mean lung attenuation at the 15^(th)     percentile on lung attenuation curve (LP15A). Multiple regression     analysis was performed to determine plasma biomarkers associated     with emphysema independent of covariates age, gender, smoking     status, body mass index and FEV₁. The findings were subsequently     validated using baseline blood samples from a separate cohort of 388     subjects enrolled in the Treatment of Emphysema with a Selective     Retinoid Agonist (TESRA) study. -   Results: Regression analysis identified multiple biomarkers     associated with CT-assessed emphysema in COPDGene, including     advanced glycosylation end-products receptor (AGER or RAGE,     p<0.001), intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM, p<0.001), and     chemokine ligand 20 (CCL20, p<0.001). Validation in the TESRA cohort     revealed significant associations with RAGE, ICAM1, and CCL20 with     radiologic emphysema (p<0.001 after meta-analysis). Other biomarkers     that were associated with emphysema include CDH1, CDH 13 and     SERPINA7, but were not available for validation in the TESRA study. -   Conclusions: Peripheral blood biomarkers including sRAGE, ICAM1 and     CCL20 can be useful in evaluating the presence and distribution of     emphysema in COPD, and can have a role to play in understanding the     pathogenesis and phenotypic heterogeneity of emphysema.

Study Population

COPDGene is a multi-centered study of the genetic epidemiology of COPD that enrolled 10,192 non-Hispanic White and African-American individuals, aged 45-80 years old with at least a 10 pack-year history of smoking, who had not had an exacerbation of COPD for at least the previous 30 days. Additional information on the COPDGene study and the collection of clinical data has been described previously (Regan E A., et al. Genetic epidemiology of copd (copedgene) study design. Copd. 2010; :32-43). 1839 COPDGene subjects (1599 non-Hispanic White

(NHW) and 240 non-Hispanic Black) had fresh frozen plasma collected using a p100 tube (BD) at five COPDGene sites. From this cohort a subset of 602 NHW subjects (no non-Hispanic Black subjects included due to limited numbers) were selected for a comprehensive biomarker study with an attempt to obtain a range of GOLD stages and match groups as closely as possible based on age, gender and smoking history. Of the 602 subjects, 588 subjects had quantitative HRCT measurements available.

A separate validation cohort of 388 individuals (all former smokers with COPD) was obtained from the Treatment of Emphysema with a Selective Retinoid Agonist (TESRA) study. TESRA was a multi-centered randomized controlled trial assessing the safety and efficacy of palovarotene in ex-smokers with COPD. Only baseline samples before treatment were used for biomarker determination. Emphysema was quantitatively assessed by low dose spiral CT in the TESRA cohort. Additional information on the TESRA study has been described previously (Jones P W., Tesra (treatment of emphysema with selective retinoid agonist) study results. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 2011; 183 :A6418).

Clinical Data and Definitions

COPD was defined as post bronchodilator ratio of forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV₁) to forced vital capacity (FVC)<0.70. Current or ex-smokers without spirometric evidence of airflow obstruction (FEV₁/FVC≥0.70) were classified as controls (Vestbo J., et al. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: GOLD executive summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Feb. 15, 2013; 187(4):347-365).

COPDGene study patients underwent whole lung volumetric multi-detector computed tomography (CT) as previously described (Regan E A., et al. Genetic epidemiology of copd (copedgene) study design. Copd. 2010; 7:32-43; Han M K., et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations in the COPDGene study: associated radiologic phenotypes. Radiology. October 2011; 261(1):274-282). Quantitative analysis of lung density was performed using the Slicer software package (www.slicer.org). Emphysema was primarily quantified by the percent of lung voxels (% LAA) ≤−950 HU on the inspiratory images of CT scans for the whole lung. Emphysema was additionally quantified by percent of lung voxels (% LAA) ≤−910 HU on inspiratory CT scans and as mean lung attenuation at the 15^(th) percentile on lung volume-adjusted attenuation curve (LP15A). In the TESRA cohort emphysema was quantified as % LAA ≤−910 HU and LP15A on HRCT scans (Jones P W., Tesra (treatment of emphysema with selective retinoid agonist) study results. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 2011; 183:A6418). Densiometric analyses of the HRCTs were completed in a central lab (BioClinica, Leiden, The Netherlands) using PulmoCMS software (Medis specials, Leiden, The Netherlands). The study design and clinical outcomes have been previously reported (Cheng D T., et al. Systemic soluble receptor for advanced glycation endproducts is a biomarker of emphysema and associated with AGER genetic variants in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Oct. 15, 2013; 188(8):948-957; Jones P W., Tesra (treatment of emphysema with selective retinoid agonist) study results. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 2011; 183:A6418).

Biomarker Selection and Measurement

For the COPDGene cohort, 114 candidate biomarkers were selected based on a review of the literature and previously reported pilot work from the BIOSPIR group (O'Neal W K., et al. Comparison of serum, EDTA plasma and P100 plasma for luminex-based biomarker multiplex assays in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the SPIROMICS study. J Transl Med. 2014; 12:9). Biomarker levels were determined using a custom 15-panel assay created by Myriad-RBM (Austin, Tex.) multiplex technology. Blood samples were drawn from non-fasting individuals. Approximately 8.5 mL of blood was withdrawn from the ante-cubital vein into a sterile 13×1000 mm P100 Blood Collection Tube (BD, New Jersey, USA). The sample was immediately centrifuged at 2500×g, 20 minutes at room temperature. Aliquots in 500 μL tubes were stored at −80° C. until analyzed. In the TESRA cohort, 111 similarly chosen protein biomarkers were measured in ethylenediamine-tetraacetic acid (EDTA) plasma in duplicate at Rules Based Medicine (Austin, Tex.) and Quest Diagnostics (Valencia, Calif.). A full list of biomarkers analyzed in the TESRA study has been published (Cheng D T., et al. Systemic soluble receptor for advanced glycation endproducts is a biomarker of emphysema and associated with AGER genetic variants in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Oct. 15, 2013; 188(8):948-957)

Statistical Analysis

Differences in demographic characteristics of study subjects were analyzed using a t-test for continuous variables and a Chi-squared test for categorical variables. Emphysema severity was classified as none, mild, moderate and severe. For % LAA ≤−950 HU the cutoffs were <5%, 5-<10%, 10-<20% and ≥20%, respectively, while for % LAA ≤−910 HU the cutoffs were <35%, 35-<45%, 45-<55% and ≥55%, respectively. Cutoffs were based on mean values from COPDGene studies and balancing the sample size in each group (Schroeder J D., et al. Relationships between airflow obstruction and quantitative CT measurements of emphysema, air trapping, and airways in subjects with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol. September 2013; 201(3):W460-470).

Biomarkers (n=17) with >10% and <95% of values below the lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) for that particular biomarker were transformed into binary variables (present or absent). Biomarkers (n=16) with >95% values below LLOQ were excluded from the analysis. For regression analysis, the remaining biomarker levels (n=81) underwent an empirical normal quantile transformation projecting the ranks onto an inverse normal distribution so that they resemble a normal distribution and allow comparison of biomarkers at different concentrations. Non-transformed biomarker levels are also presented (Table 7). Collinearity among biomarkers and covariates was assessed using Pearson correlation. Collinearity (R>0.6) was observed between proinsulin intact (INS intact) and proinsulin total (INS total) so INS intact was removed from the analysis. Also, brain derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) was removed, as it was collinear with angiopoietin 1, CCL5 (T cell specific protein RANTES), epithelial-derived neutrophil-activating protein 78, alpha-1 antitrypsin and latency associated peptide of transforming growth factor beta 1. For modeling of multiple biomarkers, stepwise regression, with a combination of backwards and forwards selection and a p-value threshold <0.15 for entry and exit from the model, was used to arrive at the final model. A p-value of <0.05 was taken as statistically significant for association with the outcome emphysema variables.

TABLE 7 Biomarkers in COPDGene biomarker study* % Biomarker Biomarker Variable 25th 75^(th) below Abv. name Units type Percentile Median Percentile LLOQ LLOQ A2M Alpha-2- mg/mL Continuous 0.94 1 1.2 0.023 0% Macroglobulin (A2Macro) ADIPO Adiponectin ug/mL Continuous 3.5 5.3 8.05 0.051 0% APCS Serum ug/mL Continuous 14 17 21 0.093 0% Amyloid P- Component (SAP) APOA4 Apolipoprotein ug/mL Continuous 66 167 459.5 0.96 0% A-IV (Apo A- IV) AXL AXL Receptor ng/mL Continuous 9.7 12 15 0.050 0% Tyrosine Kinase (AXL) B2M Beta-2- ug/mL Continuous 1.4 1.8 2.3 0.0069 0% Microglobulin (B2M) C3 Complement mg/mL Continuous 1.1 1.2 1.4 0.020 0% C3 (C3) CCL16 Chemokine ng/mL Continuous 4 5.3 7 0.047 0% CC-4 (HCC-4) CCL18 Pulmonary and ng/mL Continuous 63 89 119.5 6.2 0% Activation- Regulated Chemokine (PARC) CCL22 Macrophage- pg/mL Continuous 308.5 400 487.75 19 0% Derived Chemokine (MDC) CCL23 Myeloid ng/mL Continuous 1.1 1.4 1.7 0.18 0% Progenitor Inhibitory Factor 1 (MPIF-1) CCL24 Eotaxin-2 pg/mL Continuous 359 553 844 50 0% CCL4 Macrophage pg/mL Continuous 152.25 197 255 31 0% Inflammatory Protein-1 beta (MIP-1 beta) CCL5 T-Cell- ng/mL Continuous 5.25 9.8 17 0.024 0% Specific Protein RANTES (RANTES) CDH1 Cadherin-1 (E- ng/mL Continuous 2570 3110 4000 6.0 0% Cad) CDH13 Cadherin-13 ng/mL Continuous 15 18 22 2.2 0% (T-cad) CEACAM1 Carcinoembryonic ng/mL Continuous 12 14 16 3.1 0% antigen- related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1) CHGA Chromogranin- ng/mL Continuous 334.25 485.5 774.75 13 0% A (CgA) CRP C-Reactive ug/mL Continuous 1.3 2.7 6 0.048 0% Protein (CRP) CSTB Cystatin-B ng/mL Continuous 7.3 9.4 12 0.34 0% CXCL10 Interferon pg/mL Continuous 206 262 354 100 0% gamma Induced Protein 10 (IP- 10) CXCL9 Monokine pg/mL Continuous 697.5 1020 1550 143 0% Induced by Gamma Interferon (MIG) DCN Decorin ng/mL Continuous 1.7 1.9 2.2 0.13 0% F7 Factor VII ng/mL Continuous 456 563 688 1.8 0% FTL_FTH1 Ferritin ng/mL Continuous 66 120 217.5 4.3 0% (FRTN) GC Vitamin D- ug/mL Continuous 219.5 278 348.5 5.6 0% Binding Protein (VDBP) ICAM1 Intercellular ng/mL Continuous 102 125 151 1.5 0% Adhesion Molecule 1 (ICAM-1) IgM Immunoglobulin mg/mL Continuous 1.05 1.6 2.3 0.094 0% M (IgM) IL16 Interleukin-16 pg/mL Continuous 330.25 393 464.75 87 0% (IL-16) IL18BP Interleukin-18- ng/mL Continuous 9.1 11 14 0.096 0% binding protein (IL- 18bp) IL2RA Interleukin-2 pg/mL Continuous 1712.5 2100 2667.5 420 0% receptor alpha (IL-2 receptor alpha) IL6R Interleukin-6 ng/mL Continuous 23 28 34 0.018 0% receptor (IL- 6r) KIT Mast/stem cell ng/mL Continuous 6.8 8.1 9.3 0.51 0% growth factor receptor (SCFR) MB Myoglobin ng/mL Continuous 24.5 34 48 2.1 0% MMP3 Matrix ng/mL Continuous 5.6 8.2 12 0.049 0% Metalloproteinase- 3 (MMP-3) PECAM1 Platelet ng/mL Continuous 37 44 52 11 0% endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM-1) SELE E-Selectin ng/mL Continuous 5.6 7.6 10 0.31 0% SERPINA1 Alpha-1- mg/mL Continuous 1.6 1.8 2.1 0.016 0% Antitrypsin (AAT) SERPINA7 Thyroxine- ug/mL Continuous 32 37 42 0.22 0% Binding Globulin (TBG) SFTPD Pulmonary ng/mL Continuous 4.7 6.6 8.8 0.19 0% surfactant- associated protein D (SP- D) SHBG Sex Hormone- nmol/L Continuous 39 54 76.5 3.1 0% Binding Globulin (SHBG) SLPI Antileukoproteinase ng/mL Continuous 33 37 42 0.98 0% (ALP) SOD1 Superoxide ng/mL Continuous 25 32 41 0.12 0% Dismutase 1, soluble (SOD- 1) SORT1 Sortilin ng/mL Continuous 4.9 5.8 6.9 0.22 0% SPINK1 Pancreatic ng/mL Continuous 10 13 18 0.16 0% secretory trypsin inhibitor (TATI) TGFB1_LAP Latency- ng/mL Continuous 2.5 3.8 6.2 0.13 0% Associated Peptide of Transforming Growth Factor beta 1 (LAP TGF-b1) THBD Thrombomodulin ng/mL Continuous 3.8 4.4 5.2 0.052 0% (TM) TIMP1 Tissue ng/mL Continuous 63 72 86.5 1.2 0% Inhibitor of Metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP-1) TIMP2 Tissue ng/mL Continuous 59 66 73 1.5 0% Inhibitor of Metalloproteinases 2 (TIMP-2) TNFRSF10C TNF-Related ng/mL Continuous 9.1 13 17 0.96 0% Apoptosis- Inducing Ligand Receptor 3 (TRAIL-R3) TNFRSF11B Osteoprotegerin pM Continuous 4.5 5.5 6.6 0.45 0% (OPG) TNFRSF1A Tumor pg/mL Continuous 1350 1630 2017.5 36 0% Necrosis Factor Receptor I (TNF RI) TNFRSF1B Tumor ng/mL Continuous 4.6 5.6 7.1 0.86 0% necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2) VCAM1 Vascular Cell ng/mL Continuous 430.5 505 598 2.4 0% Adhesion Molecule-1 (VCAM-1) FGA_FGB_FGG Fibrinogen mg/mL Continuous 3.6 4.2 4.8 0.049 0.17%   IL18 Interleukin-18 pg/mL Continuous 169 229 301.75 41 0.17%   (IL-18) LPA Apolipoprotein ug/mL Continuous 6.7 7.8 9.1 1.6 0.17%   (a) (Lp(a)) MMP9 Matrix ng/mL Continuous 201 299 451 37 0.17%   Metalloproteinase- 9 (MMP-9) NPPB_PH N-terminal pg/mL Continuous 235 460 838 16 0.17%   prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide (NT proBNP) NRCAM Neuronal Cell ng/mL Continuous 0.695 0.9 1.2 0.20 0.17%   Adhesion Molecule (Nr- CAM) SERPINA3 Alpha-1- ug/mL Continuous 664.5 748 861 13 0.17%   Antichymotrypsin (AACT) CCL2 Monocyte pg/mL Continuous 113 139 175.75 45 0.33%   Chemotactic Protein 1 (MCP-1) CCL8 Monocyte pg/mL Continuous 21 27 33.5 8.6 0.33%   Chemotactic Protein 2 (MCP-2) IgA Immunoglobulin mg/mL Continuous 1.4 2 2.8 0.056 0.33%   A (IgA) ANGPT1 Angiopoietin-1 ng/mL Continuous 5.3 7 9.3 2.1 0.50%   (ANG-1) BDNF Brain-Derived ng/mL Continuous 1.5 3 5.5 0.062 0.50%   Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) CKM_CKB Creatine ng/mL Continuous 0.97 1.4 2.1 0.35 0.50%   Kinase-MB (CK-MB) MDK Midkine ng/mL Continuous 1.6 2 2.5 0.46 0.66%   KITLG Stem Cell pg/mL Continuous 237 301 367 119 0.83%   Factor (SCF) SERPINE1 Plasminogen ng/mL Continuous 21 34 49.5 2.8 0.83%   Activator Inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) CXCL5 Epithelial- ng/mL Continuous 0.39 0.7 1.2 0.084 1.00%   Derived Neutrophil- Activating Protein 78 (ENA-78) VWF von ug/mL Continuous 58 77 102 25 1.16%   Willebrand Factor (vWF) RAGE Receptor for ng/mL Continuous 1.4 2.2 3.6 0.35 1.33%   advanced glycosylation end products (RAGE) HGF Hepatocyte ng/mL Continuous 4.1 5.6 6.8 1.0 1.33%   Growth Factor (HGF) IL8 Interleukin-8 pg/mL Continuous 7.3 9.4 13 4.0 1.33%   (IL-8) VEGFA Vascular pg/mL Continuous 92 115 149 50 1.33%   Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) HP Haptoglobin mg/mL Continuous 0.935 1.4 2 0.064 1.49%   CCL13 Monocyte pg/mL Continuous 1340 1640 2130 972 2.65%   Chemotactic Protein 4 (MCP-4) FAS FASLG ng/mL Continuous 11 15 20 5.8 3.48%   Receptor (FAS) LTF Lactoferrin ng/mL Continuous 10 14 19 6.4 4.15%   (LTF) IFNG Interferon pg/mL Continuous 2.3 3.2 4.3 1.5 8.62%   gamma (IFN- gamma) IL12B Interleukin-12 ng/mL Binary NA NA NA 0.22 38.31%    Subunit p40 (IL-12p40) CA9 Carbonic ng/mL Binary NA NA NA 0.22 43.28%    anhydrase 9 (CA-9) IgE Immunoglobulin U/mL Binary NA NA NA 18 43.62%    E (IgE) MICA MHC class I pg/mL Binary NA NA NA 73 45.94%    chain-related protein A (MICA) KLK3_F Prostate- ng/mL Binary NA NA NA 0.013 49.75%    Specific Antigen, Free (PSA-f) CCL11 Eotaxin-1 pg/mL Binary NA NA NA 144 56.38%    IL15 Interleukin-15 ng/mL Binary NA NA NA 0.39 58.37%    (IL-15) CCL20 Macrophage pg/mL Binary NA NA NA 38 73.13%    Inflammatory Protein-3 alpha (MIP-3 alpha) IL23A Interleukin-23 ng/mL Binary NA NA NA 0.68 75.95%    (IL-23) IL1RN Interleukin-1 pg/mL Binary NA NA NA 220 76.62%    receptor antagonist (IL- 1ra) MDA_LDL Malondialdehyde- ng/mL Binary NA NA NA 22 82.42%    Modified Low-Density Lipoprotein (MDA-LDL) INS_intact Proinsulin, pM Binary NA NA NA 7.1 83.75%    Intact INS_total Proinsulin, pM Binary NA NA NA 34 83.75%    Total CCL3 Macrophage pg/mL Binary NA NA NA 42 84.74%    Inflammatory Protein-1 alpha (MIP-1 alpha) IL10 Interleukin-10 pg/mL Binary NA NA NA 6.9 90.55%    (IL-10) IL17A Interleukin-17 pg/mL Binary NA NA NA 2.9 94.03%    (IL-17) OLR1 Lectin-Like ng/mL Binary NA NA NA 0.75 94.53%    Oxidized LDL Receptor 1 (LOX-1) IL1A Interleukin-1 ng/mL Excluded NA NA NA 0.0012 95.52%    alpha (IL-1 alpha) TNF Tumor pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 23 97.68%    Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-alpha) IL6 Interleukin-6 pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 11 98.18%    (IL-6) HSPD1 Heat Shock ng/mL Excluded NA NA NA 45 98.34%    Protein 60 (HSP-60) LTA Tumor pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 9.7 98.51%    Necrosis Factor beta (TNF-beta) IL1B Interleukin-1 pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 4.8 98.67%    beta (IL-1 beta) IL2 Interleukin-2 pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 8.3 98.84%    (IL-2) IL7 Interleukin-7 pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 8.8 98.84%    (IL-7) IL13 Interleukin-13 pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 6.2 99.17%    (IL-13) IL12A_IL12B Interleukin-12 pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 38 99.34%    Subunit p70 (IL-12p70) IL4 Interleukin-4 pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 29 99.34%    (IL-4) CSF2 Granulocyte- pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 88 99.67%    Macrophage Colony- Stimulating Factor (GM- CSF) IL3 Interleukin-3 ng/mL Excluded NA NA NA 0.016 99.83%    (IL-3) IL5 Interleukin-5 pg/mL Excluded NA NA NA 13 99.83%    (IL-5) NGF Nerve Growth ng/mL Excluded NA NA NA 0.078 100%  Factor beta (NGF-beta) S100B S100 calcium- ng/mL Excluded NA NA NA 0.50 100%  binding protein B (S100-B) *Presented is the full list of biomarkers measured in COPDGene cohort subjects. LLOQ = lower limit of quantification. Biomarkers treated as continuous variables were transformed by quantile normalization. Biomarkers with more than 10% and less than 95% of values below LLOQ were transformed into binary variables (present or absent). Biomarkers with >95% values below LLOQ were excluded from the analysis. Median values for raw measurements together with 25^(th) and 75^(th) percentiles are presented for continuous variables.

To perform the meta-analysis, a single variable model was fit for each of the biomarkers in Table 8 that were also identified in the TESRA study. Equivalent covariates were included for the two studies and an ordered logistic and linear regression was fit respectively for the % LAA ≤−910 HU and LP15A outcomes. P-values from both studies were combined by calculating the average Z-score of the inverse normal quantiles of the two p-values to determine a combined p-value that accounted for consistent effects of the biomarker levels on emphysema severity in the two studies (Stouffer S A., The american soldier: Adjustment during army life. Princeton University Press. 1949). A Bonferroni adjustment was applied based on all tested markers. For Table 8, the results presented are beta coefficients and p values for multiple regression models of biomarkers and covariates associated with emphysema outcomes. % LAA=Percent low attenuation areas; LP15A=mean lung attenuation at 15^(th) percentile on lung attenuation curve; HU=Hounsfield units; FEV₁=Forced expiratory volume in 1^(st) second; RAGE=Receptor for advanced glycosylation end products; CCL20=Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-3 alpha; ICAM1=Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1; SERPINA7=Thyroxin-binding globulin; CDH 13=Cadherin-13; CDH1=Cadherin-1; TGFB1 LAP=Latency-Associated Peptide of Transforming Growth Factor beta 1; CCL13=Monocyte Chemotactic Protein 4; TNFRSF11B=Osteoprotegerin; CCL8=Monocyte Chemotactic Protein 2; IgA=Immunoglobulin A; SORT1=Sortilin; IL2RA=Interleukin-2 receptor alpha; CCL2=Monocyte Chemotactic Protein 1; IL-12B=Interleukin-12 Subunit p40; MDA LDL=Malondialdehyde-Modified Low-Density Lipoprotein; FAS=FASLG Receptor; SFTPD=Surfactant protein D; AXL=AXL Receptor Tyrosine Kinase; CXCL10=Interferon gamma Induced Protein 10; ADIPOQ=Adiponectin; MB=Myoglobin; SOD1=Superoxide dismutase 1; NRCAM=Neuronal Cell Adhesion Molecule. # Higher LP15A values indicate less severe emphysema, so positive coefficients are associated with less severe emphysema and negative coefficients are associated with more severe emphysema unlike higher % LAA which is associated with more severe emphysema. Biomarkers not available for replication in TESRA.

TABLE 8 Biomarkers and covariates associated with radiological emphysema in the COPDGene cohort (using multiple regression).* % LAA ≤ −950 HU % LAA ≤ −910 HU LP15A^(#) Beta Beta Beta coefficient p-value coefficient p-value coefficient p-value Covariate FEV1 (% −0.07  2.9 × 10⁻⁴⁰ −0.05 6.4 × 10⁻²⁹ 0.42  2.1 × 10⁻⁴⁷ predicted) Body mass −0.15  3.2 × 10⁻¹⁰ −0.26 8.2 × 10⁻²² 1.37  3.4 × 10⁻²¹ index Current −1.16 9.1 × 10⁻⁵ −0.76 1.3 × 10⁻⁷  4.56 7.5 × 10⁻⁷ active smoking Male gender 0.35 0.002 0.71 7.3 × 10⁻⁹  −9.57 0.0001 Age at 0.04 0.039 0.04 0.006 −0.20 0.039 enrollment Biomarker RAGE −0.69 2.6 × 10⁻⁸ −1.10 0.005 10 0.0002 CCL20 −0.45 0.0006 −0.35 0.004 2.12 0.009 (presence) ICAM1 −0.42 0.001 −2.40 0.007 28.39 3.4 × 10⁻⁶ SERPINA7^(¶) 0.28 0.013 2.11 0.042 −13.69 0.038 CDH13^(¶) 0.29 0.025 2.62 0.005 −16.91 0.008 CDH1^(¶) −0.25 0.039 −2.04 0.006 13.09 0.006 TGFB1 LAP −0.54 0.0002 CCL13 0.35 0.013 TNFRSF11B 0.34 0.016 CCL8 −0.27 0.023 IgA −0.25 0.03 6.09 0.025 SORT1 −0.26 0.038 IL2RA 0.27 0.044 CCL2 0.25 0.045 IL12B 0.22 0.049 (presence) MDA LDL 0.33 0.016 −2.07 0.025 (absence)^(¶) FAS 1.16 0.016 −8.53 0.014 SFTPD −1.16 0.025 8.34 0.016 AXL 17.05 0.002 CXCL10 −11.80 0.002 ADIPOQ^(¶) −7.26 0.015 MB^(¶) −7.97 0.016 SOD1 11.08 0.009 NRCAM^(¶) −9.26 0.017

Receiver operating curves (ROC) were generated for covariates alone and covariates with biomarkers with mild emphysema compared to no emphysema as the outcome. Nominal logistic regression was performed with emphysema considered mild if % LAA ≤−950 HU was 5-<10% compared to no emphysema (% LAA ≤−950 HU <5%). Statistical analyses were performed using JMP 9.0 (SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.) and R (version 3.0.2) statistical software packages (Murdoch D R., et al. Breathing new life into pneumonia diagnostics. J Clin Microbial. November 2009; 47(11):3405-3408).

Results

Study population

Demographics, physiology, quantitative HRCT measurements and patient-reported outcomes for COPDGene and TESRA cohorts are listed in Table 9. In the COPDGene biomarker study, there were 588 individuals with complete data available. Subjects with COPD were significantly older, had lower BMI, higher pack-year history of smoking and worse SGRQ scores compared to those without COPD (p<0.01, all comparisons). The distribution of gender and current smokers was similar between non-COPD and COPD groups. The following variables were associated with emphysema (LAA <−950 HU): lower FEV₁ (p<0.001), lower body mass index (p<0.001), male gender (p=0.002), older age at enrollment (p=0.038) and current non-smoking status (p<0.001); these variables were used as covariates for multiple regression (Table 10).

TABLE 9 Demographics of individuals in COPDGene and TESRA studies* COPDGene (n = 588) TESRA No COPD COPD COPD n = 247 n = 341 p-value (n = 388) Demographics Age (years) 61 ± 3   65 ± 0.5 p < 0.01 66.6 ± 0.4   Gender (male/female) 124/123 178/163 p = 0.63 267/121 Current smokers (%) 27 23 p = 0.23 0 Smoking History 38 ± 1  54 ± 2  p < 0.001 48 ± 1   (pack-years) Body mass index 28.9 ± 2.3  27.8 ± 0.3  p = 0.009 26 ± 0.2 (kg/m²) Physiology FEV₁ post  98 ± 3.6 47 ± 1  p < 0.001 50 ± 0.5 bronchodilator (% predicted) FVC post  96 ± 3.6 79 ± 1  p < 0.001 93 ± 0.9 bronchodilator (% predicted) HRCT measurements Average % LAA ≤−950 2.3 ± 1.6  15 ± 0.7 p < 0.001 N/A HU % Emphysema <5% 85 31 N/A % Emphysema 5-<10% 13 15 N/A % Emphysema 10-<20% 2 25 N/A % Emphysema ≥20% 0 29 N/A Average % LAA ≤−910 22.6 ± 3.7   39 ± 0.7 p < 0.001 40.7 ± 0.8   HU % Emphysema <35% 79 35 % Emphysema 35-<45% 15 19 % Emphysema 45-<55% 5 19 % Emphysema ≥55% 1 27 Average LP15A −916 ± 4.3   −944 ± 1.3   p < 0.001 −945 ± 1.3  Patient-reported outcomes MRC dyspnea score 0.5 ± 0.1 2.2 ± 0.1 p < 0.001  2.0 ± 0.03 SGRQ  12 ± 3.9  39 ± 1.1 p < 0.001 46 ± 0.8 *Presented are the means ± standard errors for COPDGene cohort and TESRA cohort. p values represent difference between no COPD and COPD groups for COPDGene. FEV₁ = Forced expiratory volume at one second; FVC = forced vital capacity; LAA = low area attenuation; N/A = data not available; LP15A = mean lung attenuation value at the 15^(th) percentile on lung attenuation curve. MRC = Medical Research Council; SGRQ = St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire.

TABLE 10 Demographics of COPDGene cohort COPDGene (n = 588) ≥5% LAA < −950 HU (n = 273) p Value <5% LAA < −950 5-10% 10-20% >20% (<%5 HU (n = 315) (n = 82) (n = 91) (n = 100) Total ≥5% vs. ≥5%) Demographics Age (years) 61 ± 0.5 64 ± 1   67 ± 0.7 66 ± 0.8 66 ± 0.5 p < 0.01  Gender 142/173 49/33 52/39 59/41 160/113 p < 0.001 (male/female) Current 33 29 12 8 16 p < 0.01  smokers (%) Smoking 42 ± 1  50 ± 3  56 ± 3 53 ± 3  53 ± 2  p < 0.01  History (pack- years) Body mass 29.5 ± 0.3  28.6 ± 0.6  28.2 ± 0.5 24 ± 0.4 26.9 ± 0.3  P < 0.001 index (kg/m²) Physiology FEV₁ post 85 ± 1.2 70 ± 3.2  47 ± 2.1 35 ± 1.3 49 ± 1.5 P < 0.001 bronchodilator (% predicted) FVC post 90 ± 0.9 87 ± 2.1  81 ± 2.0 79 ± 2.2 82 ± 1.2 P < 0.001 bronchodilator (% predicted) COPD by 33 61 94 100  86 P < 0.001 GOLD (%) HRCT measurements % Emphysema  1.6 ± 0.07 7.2 ± 0.2  14.8 ± 0.3 31.7 ± 0.8  18 ± 0.7 P < 0.001 Total lung (−950 HU) % Emphysema 19.4 ± 0.6  39 ± 0.9 45.6 ± 0.8 60.4 ± 0.7  39 ± 0.7 P < 0.001 Total lung (−910 HU) Emphysema −913 ± 0.9  −937 ± 0.5  −951 ± 0.5  −972 ± 0.9  −954 ± 0.9  P < 0.001 Total lung (LP15A) Patient- reported outcomes MRC dyspnea 1.0 ± 0.1  1.5 ± 0.2   2.0 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.1  2.2 ± 0.1  P < 0.001 score SGRQ 19 ± 1.2 29 ± 2.7  38 ± 2.1 47 ± 1.6 38 ± 1.3 P < 0.001 *Presented are the means ± standard errors for COPDGene cohort and TESRA cohort. LAA = low area attenuation; FEV₁ = Forced expiratory volume at one second; FVC = forced vital capacity; % Emphysema = % low area attenuation < −950 HU and < −910 HU on inspiration; LP15A = mean lung attenuation value at the 15^(th) percentile on lung attenuation curve. MRC = Medical Research Council; SGRQ = St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire; p values represent difference between <5% emphysema (% LAA < −950 HU) group and ≥5% emphysema group. Biomarkers Associated with Emphysema

A full list of biomarkers analyzed in the COPDGene cohort is shown in Table 7. After adjusting for covariates, multiple regression analyses demonstrated a total of 24 biomarkers associated with radiologic emphysema including 15 biomarkers independently associated with % LAA ≤−950 HU (R²=0.4), 9 biomarkers associated with % LAA ≤−910 HU (R²=0.36) and 16 associated with LP15A (R²=0.64, Table 8). There were 6 biomarkers that were associated with all 3 radiologic emphysema outcome variables. Advanced glycosylation end-product receptor (RAGE) was negatively associated with more severe emphysema (FIG. 3A). In addition, intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1, FIG. 3B), macrophage inhibitory protein 3a (CCL20) and cadherin 1 (CDH1, FIG. 3C) were negatively associated with emphysema severity. Cadherin 13 (CDH13, FIG. 3D) and thyroxin-binding globulin (SERPINA7, FIG. 3E) were positively correlated with emphysema severity (p<0.001 for all comparisons). There were 3 biomarkers surfactant associated protein D (SFPD), FAS ligand receptor (FAS), and malondialdehyde-modified low-density lipoprotein (MDA LDL) associated with both % LAA ≤−910 HU and LP 15 emphysema outcomes (Table 8).

Validation of Emphysema Biomarkers

Using similar statistical methods (modeling, covariates, etc), statistically significant biomarkers using an independent cohort from the TESRA study were validated. Although % LAA ≤−910 HU and LP15A HRCT data were available in the TESRA cohort, % LAA ≤−950 HU measurements were not. Therefore, of the total 16 biomarkers statistically associated with the emphysema outcomes ≤−910 and LP15A in the COPDGene cohort, 9 biomarkers were available for validation in TESRA cohort. After meta-analysis and adjustment for multiple testing, biomarkers RAGE (p=1.2×10⁻⁹) and ICAM1 (p=1.5×10⁻⁷) were associated with % LAA ≤−910 HU (Table 11). Similarly, with regard to the LP15A emphysema outcome variable, meta-analysis with the TESRA cohort validated the association of RAGE (p=2.5−10⁻¹⁰), ICAM1 (p=6.0×10¹¹), and AXL (p=3.8×10⁻³) with radiologic emphysema independent of covariates (Table III). CCL20 was significantly negatively associated with emphysema in both the TESRA and COPDGene cohorts; however, meta-analysis was not possible due to CCL20 being binary in COPDGene and continuous in TESRA. Biomarkers significant in the COPDGene study such as CDH1, CDH13, SERPINA7, MDA LDL, MB, NRCAM, and ADIPOQ were not measured in the TESRA study and therefore could not be included in the meta-analysis.

TABLE 11 Meta-analysis of biomarkers associated with emphysema in COPDGene and TESRA cohorts* Adjusted COPDGene TESRA meta- Beta Beta analysis Variable coefficient p-value° coefficient p-value° p-value Percent LAA ≤−910 HU RAGE −1.4 2.6 × 10⁻⁵ −0.52 9.2 × 10⁻⁷ 1.2 × 10⁻⁹ ICAM1 −3.2 9.2 × 10⁻⁶ −0.37 3.4 × 10⁻⁴ 1.5 × 10⁻⁷ CCL20^(#) −0.87 1.3 × 10⁻⁴ −0.29 2.2 × 10⁻³ N/A Mean lung attenuation at 15^(th) percentile RAGE 10.78 1.3 × 10⁻⁵ 7.08 3.0 × 10⁻⁸  2.5 × 10⁻¹⁰ ICAM1 32.3 1.1 × 10⁻⁹ 5.14 4.5 × 10⁻⁵  6.0 × 10⁻¹¹ AXL 18.8 1.8 × 10⁻⁴ 2.53 0.038 3.8 × 10⁻³ CCL20^(#) 6.44 8.2 × 10⁻⁵ 4.45 1.3 × 10⁻⁴ N/A *Presented is the regression analysis for each biomarker with an adjusted meta-analysis p value. LAA = low attenuation area; RAGE = Receptor for advanced glycosylation end products; ICAM1 = Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1; CCL20 = Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-3 alpha; AXL = AXL Receptor Tyrosine Kinase; °p values for COPDGene and TESRA are two-sided p values. ^(#)CCL20 was a binary variable in COPDGene, therefore it is the presence CCL20 that is negatively associated with emphysema in COPDGene cohort, while CCL20 was a continuous variable in TESRA also associated negatively associated with more severe emphysema. Meta-analysis was not possible given difference in variables (N/A).

Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves for covariates age, gender, body mass index, current smoking status without FEV₁ demonstrated an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.63 for the prediction of mild emphysema. The addition of 15 biomarkers from the multiple regression model raised the AUC to 0.74. When covariates included FEV₁ the AUC was 0.72, however when biomarkers were added to the model, the AUC increased to 0.8 (FIGS. 4A-4D and Table 12).

TABLE 12 Area under curve (AUC) for receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for emphysema (% LAA <−950 HU ≥5%) vs. no emphysema (% LAA <-950 HU <5%) as outcome* Outcome: Emphysema yes (≥5%): no (<5%) AUC Covariates with FEV₁ (including all ranges of airflow limitation, n = 588) Age, gender, BMI, smoking status 0.72 Age, gender, BMI, smoking status, FEV₁ (all ranges) 0.88 Age, gender, BMI, smoking status, FEV₁ (all ranges), 0.92 15 biomarkers Covariates with FEV₁ (excluding severe and very severe airflow limitation, n = 399) Age, gender, BMI, smoking status, FEV₁ (≥50% predicted) 0.78 Age, gender, BMI, smoking status, FEV₁ (≥50% predicted), and 0.85 15 biomarkers Covariates with FEV₁ (including only severe and very severe airflow limitation, n = 189) Age, gender, BMI, smoking status, FEV₁ (<50% predicted) 0.86 Age, gender, BMI, smoking status, FEV₁ (<50% predicted) and 15 0.93 biomarkers *Presented is the area under the curve (AUC) for receiver operating characteristic curves derived for the presence of emphysema compared to no emphysema on CT scan for all individuals and separately for those without severe airflow limitation and those with severe airflow limitation. BMI = Body mass index; FEV1 = Forced expiratory volume in 1^(st) second.

While various embodiments of the present invention have been described in detail, it is apparent that modifications and adaptations of those embodiments will occur to those skilled in the art. It is to be expressly understood, however, that such modifications and adaptations are within the scope of the present invention, as set forth in the following exemplary claims.

REFERENCES

-   1. Vestbo, J., et al. Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management     and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, GOLD     Executive Summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med (2012). -   2. Hurst, J. R., et al. Susceptibility to exacerbation in chronic     obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 363, 1128-1138 (2010). -   3. Thomsen, M., et al. Inflammatory biomarkers and exacerbations in     chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Jama 309, 2353-2361 (2013). -   4. Agusti, A. & Faner, R. Systemic inflammation and comorbidities in     chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc 9, 43-46     (2012). -   5. Decramer, M., Janssens, W. & Miravitlles, M. Chronic obstructive     pulmonary disease. Lancet 379, 1341-1351 (2012). -   6. Rosenberg, S. R. & Kalhan, R. Biomarkers in chronic obstructive     pulmonary disease. Transl Res 159, 228-237 (2012). -   7. Thomsen, M., Dahl, M., Lange, P., Vestbo, J. &     Nordestgaard, B. G. Inflammatory Biomarkers and Comorbidities in     Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med     (November 2012) November; 186(10):982-988. -   8. Gaki, E., et al. Associations between BODE index and systemic     inflammatory biomarkers in COPD. Copd 8, 408-413 (2011). -   9. Ozyurek, B. A., Ulasli, S. S., Bozbas, S. S., Bayraktar, N. &     Akcay, S. Value of serum and induced sputum surfactant protein-D in     chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Multidisciplinary respiratory     medicine 8, 36 (2013). -   10. Bafadhel, M., et al. Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive     pulmonary disease: identification of biologic clusters and their     biomarkers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 184, 662-671 (2011). -   11. Singh, D., Edwards, L., Tal-Singer, R. & Rennard, S. Sputum     neutrophils as a biomarker in COPD: findings from the ECLIPSE study.     Respir Res 11, 77 (2010). -   12. Minas, M., et al. Fetuin-A is associated with disease severity     and exacerbation frequency in patients with COPD. COPD 10, 28-34     (2013). -   13. Nikolakopoulou, S., et al. Serum Angiopoietin-2 and CRP Levels     During COPD Exacerbations. COPD (2013). -   14. Gao, P., et al. Sputum inflammatory cell-based classification of     patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary     disease. PLoS One 8, e57678 (2013). -   15. Tofan, F., Rahimi-Rad, M. H., Rasmi, Y. & Rahimirad, S. High     sensitive C-reactive protein for prediction of adverse outcome in     acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.     Pneumologia 61, 160-162 (2012). -   16. Bartziokas, K., et al. Serum uric acid on COPD exacerbation as     predictor of mortality and future exacerbations. Eur Respir J     (2013). -   17. Ju, C. R., Liu, W. & Chen, R. C. Serum surfactant protein D:     biomarker of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Dis Markers 32,     281-287 (2012). -   18. Hoiseth, A. D., Omland, T., Hagve, T. A., Brekke, P. H. &     Soyseth, V. NT-proBNP independently predicts long term mortality     after acute exacerbation of COPD—a prospective cohort study. Respir     Res 13, 97 (2012). -   19. Karadag, F., Karul, A. B., Cildag, O., Yilmaz, M. & Ozcan, H.     Biomarkers of systemic inflammation in stable and exacerbation     phases of COPD. Lung 186, 403-409 (2008). -   20. Perera, W. R., et al. Inflammatory changes, recovery and     recurrence at COPD exacerbation. Eur Respir J 29, 527-534 (2007). -   21. Hurst, J. R., Perera, W. R., Wilkinson, T. M., Donaldson, G. C.     & Wedzicha, J. A. Systemic and upper and lower airway inflammation     at exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J     Respir Crit Care Med 173, 71-78 (2006). -   22. Higashimoto, Y., et al. Increased serum concentrations of tissue     inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 in COPD patients. Eur Respir J 25,     885-890 (2005). -   23. Gerritsen, W. B., Asin, J., Zanen, P., van den Bosch, J. M. &     Haas, F. J. Markers of inflammation and oxidative stress in     exacerbated chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. Respir     Med 99, 84-90 (2005). -   24. Tug, T., Karatas, F. & Terzi, S. M. Antioxidant vitamins (A, C     and E) and malondialdehyde levels in acute exacerbation and stable     periods of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.     Clinical and investigative medicine. Medecine clinique et     experimentale 27, 123-128 (2004). -   25. Rohde, G., et al. Soluble interleukin-5 receptor alpha is     increased in acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary     disease. Int Arch Allergy Immunol135, 54-61 (2004). -   26. Bhatt, S. P., Khandelwal, P., Nanda, S., Stoltzfus, J. C. &     Fioravanti, G. T. Serum magnesium is an independent predictor of     frequent readmissions due to acute exacerbation of chronic     obstructive pulmonary disease. Respir Med 102, 999-1003 (2008). -   27. Carolan, B. J., et al. The association of adiponectin with     computed tomography phenotypes in chronic obstructive pulmonary     disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 188, 561-566 (2013). -   28. Regan, E. A., et al. Genetic epidemiology of COPD (COPDGene)     study design. COPD 7, 32-43 (2010). -   29. Fabbri, L. M. & Hurd, S. S. Global Strategy for the Diagnosis,     Management and Prevention of COPD: 2003 update. Eur Respir J22, 1-2     (2003). -   30. Washko, G. R., et al. Lung volumes and emphysema in smokers with     interstitial lung abnormalities. N Engl J Med 364, 897-906 (2011). -   31. Fletcher C M, Gilson, J. G., Hugh-Jones, P., Scadding, J. G.     Terminology, definitions, and classification of chronic pulmonary     emphysema and related conditions. Thorax. 1959; 14. -   32. Mohamed Hoesein F A, Zanen P, Boezen H M, et al. Lung function     decline in male heavy smokers relates to baseline airflow     obstruction severity. Chest. December 2012; 142(6):1530-1538. -   33. Li Y, Swensen S J, Karabekmez L G, et al. Effect of emphysema on     lung cancer risk in smokers: a computed tomography-based assessment.     Cancer Prey Res (Phila). January 2011; 4(1):43-50. -   34. de Torres J P, Bastarrika G, Wisnivesky J P, et al. Assessing     the relationship between lung cancer risk and emphysema detected on     low-dose CT of the chest. Chest. December 2007; 132(6):1932-1938. -   35. Haruna A, Muro S, Nakano Y, et al. CT scan findings of emphysema     predict mortality in COPD. Chest. September 2010; 138(3):635-640. -   36. Bastarrika G, Wisnivesky J P, Pueyo J C, et al. Low-dose     volumetric computed tomography for quantification of emphysema in     asymptomatic smokers participating in an early lung cancer detection     trial. J Thorac Imaging. August 2009; 24(3):206-211. -   37. Kirby M, Coxson H O. Computed tomography biomarkers of pulmonary     emphysema. Copd. August 2013; 10(4):547-550. -   38. Schroeder J D, McKenzie A S, Zach J A, et al. Relationships     between airflow obstruction and quantitative CT measurements of     emphysema, air trapping, and airways in subjects with and without     chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol.     September 2013; 201(3):W460-470. -   39. Mendoza C S, Washko G R, Ross J C, et al. Emphysema     Quantification in a Multi-Scanner Hrct Cohort Using Local Intensity     Distributions. Proc IEEE Int Symp Biomed Imaging. 2013: 474-477. -   40. Parr D G, Dirksen A, Piitulainen E, Deng C, Wencker M, Stockley     R A. Exploring the optimum approach to the use of CT densitometry in     a randomised placebo-controlled study of augmentation therapy in     alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency. Respir Res. 2009; 10:75. -   41. Stoller J K, Aboussouan L S. A review of alphal-antitrypsin     deficiency. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Feb. 1, 2012; 185(3):246-259. -   42. Cheng D T, Kim D K, Cockayne D A, et al. Systemic soluble     receptor for advanced glycation endproducts is a biomarker of     emphysema and associated with AGER genetic variants in patients with     chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med.     Oct. 15, 2013; 188(8):948-957. -   43. Carolan B J, Kim Y I, Williams A A, et al. The association of     adiponectin with computed tomography phenotypes in chronic     obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Sep. 1,     2013; 188(5):561-566. -   44. Miller M, Ramsdell J, Friedman P J, Cho J Y, Renvall M, Broide     D H. Computed tomographic scan-diagnosed chronic obstructive     pulmonary disease-emphysema: eotaxin-1 is associated with     bronchodilator response and extent of emphysema. J Allergy Clin     Immunol. November 2007; 120(5):1118-1125. -   45. Gaki E, Kontogianni K, Papaioannou A I, et al. Associations     between BODE index and systemic inflammatory biomarkers in COPD.     Copd. December 2011; 8(6):408-413. -   46. Rosenberg S R, Kalhan R. Biomarkers in chronic obstructive     pulmonary disease. Transl Res. April 2012; 159(4):228-237. -   47. Jones P W. Tesra (treatment of emphysema with selective retinoid     agonist) study results. American journal of respiratory and critical     care medicine 2011; 183:A6418. -   48. Han M K, Kazerooni E A, Lynch D A, et al. Chronic obstructive     pulmonary disease exacerbations in the COPDGene study: associated     radiologic phenotypes. Radiology. October 2011; 261(1):274-282. -   49. O'Neal W K, Anderson W, Basta P V, et al. Comparison of serum,     EDTA plasma and P100 plasma for luminex-based biomarker multiplex     assays in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the     SPIROMICS study. J Transl Med. 2014; 12:9. -   50. Stouffer S A. The american soldier: Adjustment during army life.     Princeton University Press. 1949. -   51. Murdoch D R, O'Brien K L, Scott J A, et al. Breathing new life     into pneumonia diagnostics. J Clin Microbiol. November 2009;     47(11):3405-3408. -   52. Buckley S T, Ehrhardt C. The receptor for advanced glycation end     products (RAGE) and the lung. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2010;     2010:917108. -   53. Pullerits R, Bokarewa M, Dahlberg L, Tarkowski A. Decreased     levels of soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products in     patients with rheumatoid arthritis indicating deficient inflammatory     control. Arthritis Res Ther. 2005; 7(4):R817-824. -   54. Falcone C, Bozzini S, Guasti L, et al. Soluble RAGE plasma     levels in patients with coronary artery disease and peripheral     artery disease. ScientificWorldJournal. 2013; 2013:584504. -   55. Alexiou P, Chatzopoulou M, Pegklidou K, Demopoulos V J. RAGE: a     multi-ligand receptor unveiling novel insights in health and     disease. Curr Med Chem. 2010; 17(21):2232-2252. -   56. Uchida T, Shirasawa M, Ware L B, et al. Receptor for advanced     glycation end-products is a marker of type I cell injury in acute     lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. May 1, 2006;     173(9):1008-1015. -   57. Smith D J, Yerkovich S T, Towers M A, Carroll M L, Thomas R,     Upham J W. Reduced soluble receptor for advanced glycation     end-products in COPD. Eur Respir J. March 2011; 37(3):516-522. -   58. Cockayne D A, Cheng D T, Waschki B, et al. Systemic biomarkers     of neutrophilic inflammation, tissue injury and repair in COPD     patients with differing levels of disease severity. PLoS One. 2012;     7(6):e38629. -   59. Miniati M, Monti S, Basta G, Cocci F, Fornai E, Bottai M.     Soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products in COPD:     relationship with emphysema and chronic cor pulmonale: a     case-control study. Respir Res. 2011; 12:37. -   60. Wu L, Ma L, Nicholson L F, Black P N. Advanced glycation end     products and its receptor (RAGE) are increased in patients with     COPD. Respir Med. March 2011; 105(3):329-336. -   61. Stogsdill M P, Stogsdill J A, Bodine B G, et al. Conditional     overexpression of receptors for advanced glycation end-products in     the adult murine lung causes airspace enlargement and induces     inflammation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. July 2013; 49(1):128-134. -   62. Di Stefano A, Maestrelli P, Roggeri A, et al. Upregulation of     adhesion molecules in the bronchial mucosa of subjects with chronic     obstructive bronchitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. March 1994; 149(3     Pt 1):803-810. -   63. El-Deek S E, Makhlouf H A, Saleem T H, Mandour M A, Mohamed N A.     Surfactant protein D, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and     high-sensitivity C-reactive protein as biomarkers of chronic     obstructive pulmonary disease. Med Princ Pract. 2013; 22(5):469-474. -   64. Huang H, Jiang H, Kong X, et al. [Association of intercellular     adhesion molecule-1 gene K469E polymorphism with chronic obstructive     pulmonary disease]. Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban. January     2012; 37(1):78-83. -   65. Lopez-Campos J L, Calero C, Arellano-Orden E, et al. Increased     levels of soluble ICAM-1 in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease     and resistant smokers are related to active smoking. Biomark Med.     December 2012; 6(6):805-811. -   66. Aaron C P, Schwartz, J. E., Tracy, R., Hoffman, E. A.,     Austin, J. H. M., Oelsner, E. C., Donohue, K. M., Kalhan, R.,     Jacobs, D., Barr, R. G. Intercellular Adhesion Molecule (icam)1 And     Longitudinal Change In Percent Emphysema And Lung Function: The MESA     Lung Study. Am J Rspir Crit Care Med. 2013; 187:A1523. -   67. Dieu-Nosjean M C, Massacrier C, Homey B, et al. Macrophage     inflammatory protein 3alpha is expressed at inflamed epithelial     surfaces and is the most potent chemokine known in attracting     Langerhans cell precursors. J Exp Med. Sep. 4, 2000; 192(5):705-718. -   68. Meuronen A, Majuri M L, Alenius H, et al. Decreased cytokine and     chemokine mRNA expression in bronchoalveolar lavage in asymptomatic     smoking subjects. Respiration. 2008; 75(4):450-458. -   69. Bracke K R, D'Hulst A I, Maes T, et al. Cigarette smoke-induced     pulmonary inflammation and emphysema are attenuated in     CCR6-deficient mice. J Immunol. Oct. 1, 2006; 177(7):4350-4359. -   70. Gall T M, Frampton A E. Gene of the month: E-cadherin (CDH1). J     Clin Pathol. November 2013; 66(11):928-932. -   71. Milara J, Peiro T, Serrano A, Cortijo J. Epithelial to     mesenchymal transition is increased in patients with COPD and     induced by cigarette smoke. Thorax. May 2013; 68(5):410-420. -   72. Tsuduki K N H, Nakajima, T., Tsujimura, S., Yoshida, S.,     Takahashi, E., Nakamura, M., Minematsu, N., Tateno, H., Ishizaka, A.     Genetic polymorphism of e-cadherin and copd. Am J Respir Crit Care     Med. 2009; 179:A2999. -   73. Kasahara D I, Williams, A. S., Benedito, L. A., Ranschr, B.,     Kobzik, L., Hug, C., Shore, S. A. Role of the adiponectin binding     protein, t-cadherin (cdh13), in pulmonaryt responses to subacute     ozone. PLoS One. 2013; 8:e65829. -   74. Takeuchi T, Misaki, A., Fujita, J., Sonobe, H., Ohtsuki, Y.     T-cadherin (cdh13, h-cadherin) expression downtregulated surfactant     protein d in bronchioloalveolar cells. Virchows Archiv: and     international journal of pathology. 2001; 438:370-375. 

1.-17. (canceled)
 18. A method of identifying and treating a subject at risk of developing emphysema comprising: a. obtaining a biological sample from the subject; b. determining the expression level of at least one protein in the biological sample from the subject, wherein the protein is selected from the group consisting of RAGE, CCL20, ICAM1, SERPINA7, CDH13, CDH1, and combinations thereof; and c. identifying the subject as at risk of developing emphysema when the expression level of the at least one protein is altered as compared to the expression level of the least one protein from a control; and d. treating the subject identified in step (c) for emphysema.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein determining the expression level of at least one protein comprises comparing the expression level of the at least one protein from the subject with the expression level of the at least one protein from a control, wherein the expression level of the least one protein is considered altered if the expression level of the least one protein as compared to the expression level from the control is increased or decreased.
 20. (canceled)
 21. (canceled)
 22. The method of claim 18, wherein the altered expression level is at least about 5% different from the expression level of the control.
 23. The method of claim 18, wherein the biological sample is selected from the group consisting of blood, plasma, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs).
 24. The method of claim 18 wherein RAGE is soluble RAGE (sRAGE).
 25. (canceled)
 26. (canceled)
 27. (canceled)
 28. The method of claim 18, wherein treating the subject at risk for developing emphysema comprises administering to the subject a compound selected from the group consisting of a bronchodilator, a corticosteroid, an antibiotic, a phosphodiesaterease inhibitor and combinations thereof.
 29. The method of claim 18, wherein treating the subject comprises hospitalization of the subject. 30.-32. (canceled) 